From the i^' nry of

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i08

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ESSAY

INSECTS AND DISEASES

Ilf JUEIOUS TO THE

WHEAT CROPS.

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BY H. Y. HIND, ESQ., M.A.,

i3rofcS0or of CfjcmiBtra at SErinitg Collese, Toronto.

TO WHICH WAS AWAEDED, BY THE BUREAU OF AGRICULTURE
AND STATISTICS,

THE EIRST PRIZE.

"The progress of agriculture ought to be one of the objects of your constant
care; for upon its improvement or decline depends the prosperity or decline of
empires."— (Speech of Napoleon III.

TORONTO:

PRINTED BY LOVELL & GIBSON, YONGE STREET.
1857.

INTEODUCTION.

Bureau of Agriculture and Statistics,
Toronto, 7th Sept., 1857.

On the 18th August, 1856, there issued from this Depart-
ment the following notice: —

BuREAiT OF Agriculture and Statistics,
Toronto, 15th August, 1856.

PRIZE ESSAYS — £40, £25, and £15.

The above premiums will be paid for the thi-ee best Essays, respec-
tively, on the " Origin, nature, and habits, — and the history of the pro-
gress, from time to time, — and the cause of the progress, of the weevil,
Hessian fly, midge, and such other insects as have made ravages on the
wheat crops in Canada; and on such diseases as the wheat crops have
been subjected to, and on the best means of evading or guarding against
them."

The essay to be furnished to the Bureau by the 15th day of January
next; and to be designated by a motto, a copy of which shall be also
forwarded, in a sealed note, with the name and address of the author.
The prizes will be awarded according to the decision of a committee, to
be named by the Board of Agriculture for Upper and Lower Canada ;
or, in default of any such decision, by the Bureau. The essays selected
to become the property of the Bureau. A premium will only be awarded
in case an essay of sufficient merit is produced.

It is feared that the farmer, in his eagerness to produce wheat, is not
paying sufficient attention to the danger of over-cropping; and it is
hoped that this warning, and the information, and advice which may be
obtained through the essays sought for, will aid in arresting the great
scourges of the wheat

P. M. VANKOUGHNET,

Minister of Agriculture, &c.

lY INTRODUCTION.

The time named in the notice first issued having been ex-
tended to the 15th day of April, twenty-two essays were re-
ceived up to that time. The Boards of Agriculture for Upper
and Lower Canada named Professor Hincks, of University
College, Toronto, and Professor Dawson, of McGill College,
Montreal, as a Committee, to decide upon the merits of the
several essays.

According to the decision of these gentlemen, the First
Prize has been awarded to H. Y. Hind, Esq., Professor of
Chemistry at Trinity College, Toronto, author of the Essay
with the motto —

" The progress of agriculture ought to be one of the objects of your constant
care, for upon its improvement or decline depends tlie prosperity or decline of
empires."— Empeeoe Napoleon III.

The Second Prize to the Rev. George Hill, Rector of
Markham, author of the Essay with the motto —

" Mox et frumcntis labor additus."

And the Third Prize to Emilien Dupont, Esq., of St.
Joachim, in the county of Montmorency, author of the Essay
with the motto —

" Spinas et tribulos germinabit tibi (terra) et comedes herbam terrse."

INTRODUCTION.

Tlie Judges also state that they consider the four Essays
bearing the following mottoes as worthy of honorable mention,
as containing much valuable information : —

" Nil sine labore.'

" Trunca pedum primo, mox et stridentia pennia
Miscentur, tenuemque magis aera carpunt."

" They are all the work of His hands."

"And the Lord God prepared a gourd, and made it come up over Jonah, that
it might be a shadow over his head to deliver him from his grief; so Jonah was
exceedingly glad of the gourd.

" But God prepared a worm when the morning rose, and it smote the gourd
that it withered."

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

Page
Destructive Insects 9

CHAPTER II.

Description and Classification of Insects 24

CHAPTER III.

The Hessian Fly — Its Origin ; Progress ; Description ;
Habits ; Parasites ; and Remedial Measures for its
destruction or extirpation 38

CHAPTER IV.

The Wheat Midge — Its Origin ; Progress ; Description ;
Habits ; Parasites ; and Remedial Measures for its
destruction or extirpation 75

CHAPTER V.

The "Wheat-Stem Fly, and other Depredators . . . .103

CHAPTER VI.
Rust — Smut — Pepper Brand — Ergot 109

CHAPTER VII.

The Weevil— The Wolf— The Angumois Moth, &c. &c. 135

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS.

(.Referred to in Chaptbb II.)

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PEIZE ESSAY.

CHAPTEE. I.

Accounts of the ravages of destructive insects, common, 1, 2. — Remedial measures
not recorded ; reason of this apparent neghgence, 2, •!. — Distinction between
foreign and naturalized insects, 5, 6. — Certain destructive insects, common in
America ; general immunity in Canada, and reasons for it, 6, 9.— Locusts at the
Cape of Good Hope ; Europe and Africa, 9, 12,— The seventeen 5-ear locust, 12.
Broods of seventeen year locust in the United States, 14.— Found in Canada,
14.— Vast abundance in Ohio, 16. — Appearance in the western prairies, 16. —
DestruQtiveness of, 16. — Pine Beetle in South Carolina, on the Ottawa, and in
the Hartz, 17.— Palmer Worm in New England, 18.— The Aphis, destructive-
uess of, in Great Britain, in Belgiuai, in America, 20, 21.— The Chinch Bug, 21.
—Common in the Western States, unknown in Canada, 22.— Cost of maintain-
ing destructive insects, in France, (22 a), in the United States, (22 a) (22 b)
Food of insects, 23, 24.— Distribution of wind, 25.— Connection with rocks, 26.

1. Accounts of the sudden appearance and devastating pro-
gress of insects, injurious to vegetation, have been handed down
to us from the earhest times. Few events would seem to be
more Hkely to secure universal attention at the time of their
occurrence than the excessive multiplication over wide areas of
countless millions of insects, threatening the destruction of the
food of man.

2. Such calamities must have appeared at all times and in all
nations, as alarming omens of future wide spreading distress ;
while, however, we frequently find interspersed among the records
of history numerous melancholy recitals of the ravages committed

10 PRIZE KSSAY :

by clouds of grasshoppers, locusts, and flies of various kinds,
the narrative frequently stands alone, wthout informing us by
what proWdential interposition the plague was stayed, or what
human efforts were made to arrest the scourge and guard against
its return.

3. This arose, no doubt, in great i)art, from the migratorj'
character of the insect depredators, coming, as many species
did, from distant and uninhabited lands, where their increase
was unnoticed, and perhaps, even their presence generally un-
known, thus rendering all human eflForts absolutely futile in the
attempt to stay the insect plague.

4. In part also from the unaccountable disappearance in a
single season of the dreaded enemy, with perfect immunity from
its attacks during many succeeding years, thus allowing an event
which had struck terror among entire nations to pass from re-
membrance, until a renewal of its ravages produced similar alarm
and destruction, to be again deplored and forgotten. Such,
indeed, is the case at the present day, but with this difference,
that while we are subject to as great or even greater dangers
arising from insects which have made their home in our midst
than our forefathers were, an effort is now made to guard against
their destructive attacks, by acquiring and spreading a know-
ledge of their habits and history, so that those remedial measures
may be adopted which experience and accurate information
suggest.

o. It is highly important to distinguish between the sudden
invasion of an infinite multitude of insects from distant lands
and the gradual increase of those which have taken up their
permanent abode with us, and multiply upon the fruits of our
toil. The foreign invader suddenly appearing in innumerable
hosts, requires for his subjection and destruction a power inli-
nitelv greater than man can call to his aid ; while the increase

DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS. 11

of our indigenous enemies or of destructive colonizers may
sometimes be arrested by the uniform adoption of these remedies
which a knowledge of their history and habits confers.

6. The excessive appearance of foreign insects is of common
occurrence in countries situated within certain geographical
limits even at the present day, and although we do not often
read of such devastating legions as those which composed " the
army of the Almighty, strong to execute his word," (^) we
know that parts of Europe occasionally suffer from local invasions
of a most alarming and threatening character. On this conti-
nent we have witnessed during the last ten years the immense
local injury cavised by grasshoppers, seventeen year locusts, wire
worms, aphides, curculios, wheat flies, chinch bugs, turnip flies,
catworms, palmer worms, and others, and some of these are of
foreign origin.

7. Their ravages might be considered of secondary importance
when compared with the terrible visitations of insect pests which
have not been uncommon in inhabited countries during the past
centu.ry, but they are sufficiently destructive and alarming as to
become a subject of national importance. It may be useful to
enumerate a few instances of these excessive appearances of
insects, by way of contrast to that comparatively mild form of
insect plague in Canada, which has been the occasion of this
essay.

8. We are too much inclined to over estimate the decree of

(1) Every one is familiar with the thrilling descriptions of insect visitations re-
corded in the sacred pages : " Stretch out thy rod and smite the dust of the land,
that it may become lice throughout all the land of Egypt." — " There came a
grievous swarm of flies into the house of Pharaoh and into his servants' houses, and
into all tho land of Egypt, the land was corrupted by reason of the swarm of flies."
(Ex. iii.)— " And the locusts went up over all the land of Egypt, and rested in all the
coasts of Egypt." (Ex. x.)— " And I will restore to you the years that the locust hath
eaten, the cankerworm, and the caterpillar, and the palmer worm, my great army
which I sent among you." (Joel ii.)

12 PRIZE ESSAY :

injury we occasionally suffer from the natural causes, because we
have not always the opportunity of comparing our losses and
troubles with those sustained by our fellow-men in less favoured
countries than our own. It is obviously unjust to attribute to
climate, geographical position or peculiarities of soil, the general
appearance of destructive insects, which we have encouraged and
invited by the best means in our power, or perhaps, which it was
possible to devise. In the following pages it Avill be shown that
we enjoy in Western Canada a singular immunity from insect
depredations, arising no doubt from our insulated position and
humid climate.

9. I do not wish to under-rate the injury sustained by the
country at large by the ravages of such insects as the Hessian
fly, the wheat fly, and the wire worm, &:c. ; but when it can be
shown that we possess to a considerable degree the means of
arresting the devastating progress of those we have suffered to
make their home in our midst, and of so reducing their numbers
as to render them comparatively harmless ; it cannot fail to be a
matter of congratulation and thankfulness that insect enemies over
which we cannot exercise control, neither trouble nor as yet
threaten us, although the gradual approach of some of them
from the South is a sufficient cause for anxious watchfulness and
care. (See paragraphs 14 and 21.)

10. Our sister colony at the Cape of Good Hope, has been
particularly subject to the dreadful scourge of locusts, {G-ryllus
devastator,) whose invasions are invariably followed by famine
in the region they devastate. The inroads of the locust are ap-
parently periodical, according to Pringle, about once every fifteen
years. In 1808 after having laid waste a considerable portion
of the country, they disappeared, and did not return until 1824.
They then remained for several years, but in 1830, took their
departure. The proper home of the locust is yet a mystery.

DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS. 13

Experience only tells us that at the Cape they come southwards
from the north. (i)

11. It is well known that the locust sometimes multiplies in
Europe to such a degree as to dcA'astate provisions. Africa is
rarely free from its ravages, and of their infinite multitude we
have records from the earliest authors, fully confirmed by the
accounts of recent travellers. In France, Germany, Spain, Italy
and Russia, armies of locusts have appeared from time to time,
and with such devastating progress that " the laud is as the
Garden of Eden before them, and behind them a desolate wil-
derness." North America is not exempt from the plague of
insects, allied to locusts, and while in Europe they seldom pene-
trate further north than latitude 43^, their congeners have com-
mitted great ravages as far north as Lord Selkirk's settlement, at
Pembina, on the Red River, in latitude 54°, coming from the
Western prairies.

12. The seventeen year locust, as it is popularly but erroneously
termed, is an American insect of most singvdar habits and des-
tructive character. Its appearance was first recorded about
Philadelphia in May, 1/15, and since that date "punctually at
the same month every seventeenth year, now certainly for nearly
one hundred and fifty years, has this extraordinary insect been
known to make its visit. No causes have aifected it during that
period, not even so far as relates to the month in which it
appears." (2)

13. This remarkable insect appears in different parts of the
United States in separate broods, which have each their appointed
year for assuming the winged state, and propagating their specieis.
An entire brood hatches in a few days time, and countless mil-
lions of these large black flies (not true locusts) suddenly appear

(1) Lake Ugasni. Page 285.

(2) W. S. W. Ruschenberger, M.D., U.S.N.

14 PRIZK KSSAY :

over areas occiii)ying many thousand square miles. Dr. Fitch,
State Entomologist of New York, says that three of these broods
exist partly within the boundaries of the State, and there ap-
pear to be six other broods in different parts of the United
States.

14. One brood inhabits the valley of the Hudson River. Its
last appearance was in 1843, and it will appear again in 1860.
A second brood is found in Western New York, "Western Penn-
sylvania and Eastern Ohio. It appeared in 1849, and it is very
probable that the outskirts of the brood extend into Canada.
It may be looked for again in 1866. The third brood, which
came forth in 1855, extends from the Atlantic to the Ohio, and
into Canada ; several individuals of this brood are said to have
been taken near Toronto in that year, and it is quite certain that
the loud note of a cicada was heard repeatedly in the woods
west of the city in July of that year. Dr. Fitch, quoting a
letter from Mr. Robinson, , dated Pallchassie, May 24th, says,
" I have heard the seventeen year locusts for ten days past, but
they are not plenty here. At Park Hill, however, twenty-five
miles south of this, in the Cherokee coimtry, they are very
numerous, and in these hungry times, occasioned by the severe
drought of last year and this spring, the people (Indians) are
glad to gather and eat them."

15. The great Pennsylvania brood before noticed reached from
that State to Georgia ; another or fifth brood extends from
Western Pennsylvania through the valley of the Ohio River, and
down that of the Mississippi to Louisiana; it appeared in 1846
tnd will, therefore, make its re-appearance in 1863. A sixth
brood assumed the fly state in 1854 around the head of Lake
Michigan, and across Northern Illinois into Iowa. Other and
minor broods are recorded to have made their appearance in
different parts of the Union, but Dr. Fitch thinks that some of

DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS. li>

them may have consisted of other species, mistaken for the true
seventeen year locusts. (^^

16. In Ohio it is stated on the best authority, that the grubs
have been collected in such vast quantities, that they have been
used in the manufacture of soap by the farmers in the localities
where they are abundant. The number of them is so immense
that the ground is described as riddled by their holes. Dr.
Hildreth says they dwell for 1 6 years and ten months in a grotto
of their own construction, probably near the root of some tree,
for they are forest dwellers, and derive their nourishment from
the roots of trees, grasses and herbs. In 1846 a large number
of these locusts emerged from the earth in Dr. Hildreth' s gar-
den, in the branches of which the parent cicada had deposited
her eggs in 1829. (^) In 1854 this extraordinary insect was
noticed as lieing more wide spread in many places in Illinois
than it was on its previous visit. Fruit and forest trees wherever
they had been planted on the prairies, were seventeen years ago
destitute of these insects, but in 1 854 they came from the ground
among such trees as abundantly as in the original timber lands. (3)
An enemy there lying concealed and preying for seventeen years
upon the choicest treasures of the garden and field, must be en-
titled to a place among insect scourges in the first rank. Canada
is happily yet free from the destructive presence of this extra-
ordinary depredator, but it is found in all the States of the
Union surrounding her, warning us of its approach and visit.
It appears to infect the oak, apple, poplar, and probably many
other trees, for the purpose of depositing its eggs, for which
object it })unctures the small limbs and does incalculable injury.

(1) For a most Interesting account of this insect see page 38 of the first report on
the noxious and other insects of the State of New York, Dr. Asa Fitch, 1855-

(2) p. 216, Vol. 3, 2nd series. H. J. of Science.

(3) Dr. Fitch's Report, page 43.

16 PRIZE essay:

so weakening the branches it attacks, that, as in Wisconsin in
1 854, every gust of wind suffices to break off many of the twigs at
the point where the locust had deposited its eggs. Mr, .T. W.
Morris speaks of having seen the tops of the forest trees in
Pennsylvania and Ohio, for upwards of one hundred miles, ap-
pearing as if scorched by fire a month after this locust had left
them. (1)

17. In some of the forests in South Carolina ninety pine trees
out of one hundred have been killed by a small beetle. Great
numbers of noble pmes, three feet in diameter, and 150 feet
high, stand with their naked arms stretched abroad, lifeless, like
hundred and thousands of others prostrate on the ground with,
out any successors of their kind. (2) In the great timber region
of the Ottawa there is a narrow strip of dead pines extending
thirty miles up the river, no trace of fire or any other agent
likely to have effected their destruction is visible ; their erect
trunks stand in gloomy grandeur almost stript of their branches
by long exposure to wind, rain and snow. Although no outward
sign is visible of the destroying enemy, yet, no doubt the de-
structiA^e pine beetle has been the secret cause of their decline
and death. (3) It has long been known that a beetle (Bostrichus
t^poffraphus) has several times threatened the entire destruction
of the forests in the Hartz Mountains. In 1/83 a million and
a half of trees were destroyed by this insect in the Hartz alone.
As many as 80,000 larvse have been found on a single tree.

18. The palmer worm which visited New England and the
eastern part of the State of New York with such unparalleled
destructiveness in 1853, is common in Canada. In 1791 the

(1) Dr. Pitch's Report.

(2) Trans. Amer. Ins., 1846.

(8) Related to the writer by a very competent-eye witness, who spent several years
with the Lumbermen.

DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS. 1/

orchards and forests of New England were overrun by this worm,
and the leaves of the apple, oak and other trees devoured by it.
In 1853 the trees everpvhere assumed a brown withered appear-
ance under their destructive attacks, looking as though they had
been scorched by fire. On jarring or shaking a tree hundreds
would instantly let themselves down from among the leaves, by
fine threads like cobweb, some dropping to the ground, others
remaining suspended in the air. They continued in full force
until 23rd June, when rain accompanied by heaAy thunder caused
them to disappear. (^'

19. The Aphis tribe, of Avhich many species were so abundant
and destructive in the neighbourhood of Toronto during the dry
summer of 1856, is in some countries a most dreaded and de-
vastating pest. So wonderfully productive are the green plant
lice that in five generations one aphis may be the progenitor of
5,904,900,000 descendants ; and it is supposed that in one year
there may be 20 generations (Reaumer). In 1810 the Pea crop
was almost entirely destroyed throughout Great Britain by an
aphis. Indeed next to the locust the aphidfe may be said to be
the greatest enemies of the vegetable Avorld (Kirby). The won-
derful fertility of this tribe of insects exceeds that of any known
species, and elevates them to a position in the scale of pests and
plagues which secures for them the second, if not in many tem-
perate climates, the first place among insect depredators. A few
weeks is sufficient to convert a handful of these viviparous and
oviparous insects into countless legions, which taking flight, darken
the air by their numbers. In 1834 a great flight of these insects
was distributed by a strong wind over Belgium. In 1836 the
inhabitants of Hull, England, were seriously incommoded by
a host of them loading the air in numbers so immense as

(1) See -incl Report by Dr. Fitch.

18

PRIZK ESSAY :

to fill the eyes, nose and mouth of all who were hi the open air
at the time of their visit. (i) There are numerous species of
aphis, forty-nine named species have heen recorded by Stephens
in his catalogue of British insects. They are found to infest
most of our cultivated vegetables. Fortunately they have num-
erous enemies, otherwise their wonderful fecundity would enable
them to destroy every blade of grass and every green thing in
our gardens and fields.

20. Mr. Curtis states that from one egg, in seven generations,
729 millions will be bred ; and if they all lived their allotted time,
by autumn everything upon the surface of the earth would be
covered by them. Dr. Fitch relates that " on the last day of
October, 1854, it being a warm sunny day, after many nights of
frost, I observed myriads of winged and apterous lice wandering
about upon the trunks, the limbs and the fading leaves of all
my apple trees, many of them occu])ied in laying their eggs.
These were scattered along in every crevice of the bark, in many
places j)iled up and filling the cracks, and others were irregularly
dropped among the lichens and moss growing upon the bark —
every uuevenness of the surface, or wherever a roughness afforded
a support for them, being stocked with as many as coidd be
made to cling to it."'

21. The history of the chinch bug is ])robably not familiar to
the majority of Canadian farmers, as this insect does not yet ap-
pear to have crossed the Detroit and St. Clair Rivers ; but Avhile
it is to be hoped that many years will elapse before it finds a
home in this country, there is reason to fear that sooner or later
we may have to deplore, perhaps in a mitigated form, its advent
in our midst. As allusion will be made to this destructive and

(1) See Smee on the potato plant, for numerous instances of the incredible
numbers and destructiveness of various species of aphidic.

DKSTRUCTIVK INSECTS. 19

disgusting insect, (d in subsequent pages (paragraph 52), the
following account of its progress and destructiveness is submitted
from Dr. Fitch's reports : — "The chinch bug has now multiplied
and extended itself over all parts of Illinois and the adjacent
districts of Indiana and Wisconsin, and has become a most for-
midable scourge. The dry seasons which have recently occurred
have increased it excessively. In passing through Northern
Illinois, in the autumn of 1854, I found it in myriads. In the
middle of extensive prairies, on parting the grass in search of
insects, the ground in some places was found covered and swarm-
ing with chinch bugs. The appearance reminded me of that
presented on parting the hair of a calf that has been poorly
wintered, where the skin is found literally alive with vermin.

22. Our western neighbours have for years past been congra-
tulating themselves upon the security of their wheat crops,
exempt from the midge and other insect depredators which were
causing us such losses here at the east. But they now find that
they have in the chinch bug a foe more formidable and destruc-
tive even than the wheat midge, since it not only cuts off their
wheat, but in many localities it takes the corn a*id other crops
also. Although it is commonly onlv' a strip of the outer edge
of the field which they devastate, yet in several instances the
entire field is invaded and swarms with them, so that no grain is
developed in the heads, and some have set fire to their wheat fields
to consume the hosts of these vermin which were gathered therein,
with the hope of thereby lessening the numbers upon their
farms the following year. The disgusting smell, moreover, which
these bugs emit, is most loathsome and sickening to the labourers
engaged in harvesting the wheat fields. Lilley's reaping machine,
made at Elgin, Illinois, has small deep boxes sunk in the plat-

(1) In 1856 the chiuch bug injured spring wheat in Fayette County, Iowa.

20 PRIZE ESSAY :

form for the raker and tliree binders to stand in, that they may
not have to stoop to their Avork as they would if standing on
the platform. As the machine is in operation, the feet of the
men standing in these boxes become buried anftng the insects
and fine chaff which fall into them. The men are so annoyed
by these vermin thus covering their feet and crawling up their
legs, that they many times stamp to shake off and crush the tor-
menting things ; and whether dead or alive, when thus heaped
together in masses, such a stink arises from them, as, when
wafted by the air it happens to come full in one's face, is the
most loathsome and nauseating of any thing that can be
imagined.

22. (a) It is difficult to arrive at accurate conclusions respect-
ing the annual cost of maintaining destructive insects. In
France, where great efforts are constantly made to diminish the
numbers of these terrible foes to the agriculturist and public
economv, upwards of four hundred thousand pounds have been
paid out of the government chest in one year to armies of men,
women and children, for their labours in extirpating these pests.
This large outlay occurred during a season in which destructive
insects prevailed to an unusual extent, threatening the country
with famine. It has been said on very excellent authorit}'^, that
the damages done by insects in France alone amount on the
average to {§^50,000,000. This sum, immense as it appears to
be, is actually approached in some years in the United States.
The damages done by the wheat midge in 1854, exceeded, un-
doubtedly, {§'16,000,000 throughout the Union. When to the
injuries committed by the terrible pest just named, those of the
chinch bug, Hessian fly, wire worm, and the hosts of insects
preying upon fruit trees are added, ;§^30,000,000 would not cover
the cost of their maintenance in that year. The quantity of
human food annually consumed by insects in France, is equal to

DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS. 21

the entire consumption of the nation for a period of five weeks,
and two species alone are computed to consume annually more
than three millions of men. (i) The celebrated curculios, and
the 'terrible' Angoumois moth, so dreadfully destructive in 1760,
are among the wheat pests of France.

22. (b) The progress and increase of insects destructive to
cultivated crops in the United States, is a subject of the utmost
importance to agriculture. So many threatening and uncon-
trollable circumstances govern their increase on this continent,
that the danger of short harvests arising from their depredations
is year by year growing more imminent, and will some day come
upon the country with a blow as sudden as it will be terrible.
The immense area occupied by cultivated crops, the almost total
absence of rotation, and the remarkable character of some of the
indigenous insects which have already pi'oved seriously destruc-
tive in the middle States of the Ohio and jNIississippi valleys, all
threaten a calamity which will be felt from Maine to Mexico.
As I propose to enlarge upon this subject in a future chapter,
further remarks are at present unnecessary. (Chapter VIII.
On the cultivation of wheat in the United States.)

23. The food of insects embraces the utmost variety the animal
and vegetable world can offer. Some species are restricted to
particular plants, and if these fail, the race may for a time dis-
appear. (-) Insects appear to be the instruments designed to
arrest the excessive growth and increase of certain species of
plants, and it is probable that there is not a species of plant,
which does not furnish nutriment for one or more tribes of
insects, either in their larvse state or in their perfect condition,
whereby it is prevented from multiplying to the exclusion of
others.

(1) M. Delamane. (2) Carpenter.

22 PRIZE essay:

24. Not less than two hundred kinds of caterpillars are sup-
posed to feed upon the oak ; and upwards of 50 different species
of insects are known to live upon the nettle, which is so repug-
nant to quadrupeds that few will touch it, yet such is the rapid
increase of this vegetahle, that if it were not for its insect de-
predators it would soon annihilate all plants in its neighbour-
hood. The naturalist, Wilke, tells us that every plant has its
proper insect allotted to it, to curb its luxuriance and to prevent
it from multiplying to the exclusion of others. The peculiarity
of the agency of insects consists of their power of suddenly
multiplying their numbers to a degreee which could only be
accomplished in a considerable lapse of time in any of the larger
animals, and then as instantaneously relapsing without the inter-
vention of any violent disturbing cause into their former insig-
nificance. (') Many instances of this sudden increase and cor-
responding disappearance a few days or weeks after, will be
noticed in the folloAving pages.

25. The wind seems to play a very important part in the dis-
tribution of insects over wide areas and in particular directions.
A wind from the coast of Africa drove such myriads of flies upon
the fresh paint of H. M. S. Adventure, then 100 miles from
land, that not the smallest point was left unoccupied or uncov-
ered. The Hessian fly, and particularly the wheat midge, both
select low and sheltered places for their depredations. Elevated
and exposed fields are not unfrequently untouched in the midst
of the greatest devastation

26. The connection of insects with rocks is a subject which
has been investigated to a very slight degree, and offers a fertile
and instructive field for the enquiring agricultural entomologist.
Mr. Wailes always found the larvse of enicoceri on rough shiny

(1) Lyell— Principle of Geology.

DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS. 23

stones, and he found it as great a waste of time to look for it
upon a smooth limestone as to turn up a fragment of basaltic
rock (whitstone), in search of a geodephagous (i) insect. "So
far," says Mr. Wailes, "as my observations, whether confined to
single stones, or extended over a whole district, go, any place
having limestone, particularly the magnesian, for its subjacent
stratum, will aiford abundance of the geodephaga as well as most
other coleoptera, whilst they will be found very thinly scattered
over a basaltic region." (2)

(1) Geodephagous. The geodephaga form a coleopterous subdivision containing
two families, the cicindelidee and the carabidse. Of the former there are between
fifty and sixty species known in the United States and Canada. They prey on insects.
The carabidJB are very numerous, predaceous, feeding upon insects and also upon
vegetables. They are generally found under stones and rubbish.

(2) Quoted in Enc. Britt. 8th Ed.

CHAPTER II.

Use of scientific terms common and necessary, 27, 28.— Reasons why an outline of
entomological classification and nomenclature is necessary, 28, 29.— Importance
of Entomology, 30, 31. — Reasons why the study of insects has noL been popu-
lar, 33, 34.— Definition of insects, 36.— Changes which they undergo, 37. —
Breathing organs of insects, 38.— Systematic arrangement of, 39. — Definition,
40.— Scheme, 40.— Order I., Coleoptera, 41.— Order II., Orthoptera, 47.— Order
III., Neuroptera, 48.— Order IV., Hymenoptera, 49.— Order V., Trichoptery, 50.
Order VI., Strepsiptera, 51.— Order VII., Hemiptera, 52.— Chinch Bug, 52. —
Apliidae in the United States, 53 — Order VIII., Depidoptera, 54.— Order IX.,
Diptera, 56. — Technical characters of the Cecidomyia, the genus to which the
wheat midge belongs, 56. — Order X., Aphaniptera, 57- — Order XI., Thysanoura,
58.— Order XII., Parasita, 59.

27. Every agricultural publication contains from time to time
descriptions of insect depredators, in which are frequently em-
ployed many of the scientific terms used by entomologists to de-
signate the species, genus and order, to which the maurauder be-
longs. The use of some scientific terms is very often absolutelv
necessary in giving even a popular description of a fly, a beetle,
a weevil, a parasite, or a so called bug.

28. Every one is familiar with the frequent occurrence of such
terms as coleopterous insect, dipterous insect, parasitical insect,
larva, pupa, &c. Farmers ought to be familiar with these terms,
and to be able to form a correct idea of the nature of an insect
depredator, which may occasion injury or alarm, whether they
acquire their information from the perusal of a popular but suffi-
ciently accurate description, or whether they seek to convey in
written words an account of what they observe with such ac-
curacy and distinctness as would enable any one acquainted with

DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 2o

the outlines of entomology to identify the insect, if among well
known destructive species, here or abroad. It is for the purpose
of aifording a general view of insect classification and nomencla-
ture that the following brief definitions and descriptions are
given. They contain merely those terms which are continually
occurring even in popular descriptions of insects, and without
which most attempts to convey in words an idea of a new, a
strange, or even a common species, must necessarily be compara-
tively worthless, because indistinct and imperfect.

29. The definitions and outlines of classification are prefaced
by a few remarks upon the distribution and importance of insects,
the science which treats of their history, habits and relation to
man, and the difficulties which prejudice and a want of a proper
appreciation of its merits have thrown in its way as a subject of
popular instruction and enquiry. The increase and ravages of
insects injurious to many of our cultivated crops have already
become matters of the highest importance on this continent, and
year by year threatens us with a terrible calamity. Like many
other unseen yet impending evils, the magnitude of this one is
unappreciated, and it is only when a devastation similar to that
which occurred in New York State in 1854, or in the Niagara
Townships in 1856, become as wide spread as the Union
itself, that men generally will regard the subject in a proper
light.

30. There is no branch of natural history which can claim so
many distinct objects of study and admiration as that of Ento-
mology. (1) The number of distinct species of insects contained
in collections, probably amounts to 200,000. In the Museum at
Berlin about 100,000 species are arranged and classified, among
which are upwards of 40,000 coleoptera or beetles, audit is com-

(1) Entomology. Entomon, an insect, logos-, a discourse.

C

26 PRIZE ESSAY :

puted that all the species of insects taken together, which exist
in nature do not fall short of 400,000.

31. It is, however, probable, that there are'more known species
of plants than insects, but the vegetable world has been far more
sedulously studied and ransacked than the apparently less strik-
ing and less important world of insects. A very large number
of plants have been collected in distant parts of the globe, with-
out the insects which live on them or near them being brought
at the same time. But if we limit, says Humboldt, (^) the esti-
mates of numbers to a single part of the world, and that the one
which has been the best explored in respect to both plants and
insects, viz., Europe, we find a very different proportion, for
while we can hardly enumerate between seven and eight thous-
and European phoenogamous (flowering) plants, more than three
times that number of insects are already known.

32. The relations of insects to man are not only remarkably
numerous but of the utmost importance, and with the exception
of the domesticated animals, they exceed those of all other classes
in this kingdom of nature. Nevertheless, we find that the study
of entomology is still in its infancy, and has neither progressed
so rapidly nor won so many admirers as her sister science botany,
or some of her kindred departments in zoology.

33. From the time of Pliny to that of Limie in Sweden,
Reaumer in France, Sulzer in Germany, Ray, Kirby and Spence
in England, Say in America, entomologists have found the ne-
cessity of seizing every opportunity of showing that their favor-
ite science was not a frivolous amusement or devoid of utility,
as popular opinion seemed inclined to consider it. (^) Old im-
pressions, says Reaumeur, are with difficulty effaced. They are

(1) Aspects of nature.

(2) See introduction to Kirby a\id Spence's Entomology.

DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 27

weakened, they appear unjust even to those who feel them, at
the moment they are attacked by arguments which are inadmiss-
able ; but the next instant the proofs are forgotten, and the per-
verse association resumes its empire."

34. During the last half century the low estimation in which
the science of entomology was formerly held, has been slowly
giving way to a more correct appreciation of its value and of the
benefits which a general study of its details might confer upon
mankind. At times like the present, when a vast province is
trembling at the prospect of one of its staple productions dwin-
dling away under the attacks of minute but numberless insects,
all are willing to listen to the teachings of the entomologist, and
would seek to elevate to the position of an invaluable science, the
study which, when proofs are forgotten, will probably be allowed,
in popular estimation at least, once more to subside into a harm-
less or frivolous pursuit.

35. It would be an easy task to show by numerous illustra-
tions the great economical value of the science of entomology,
but as this would swell out the pages to too great an extent, I
shall content myself with a reference to the statistical facts in-
terspersed throughout this essay, which may serve to create,
where it is most needed, a proper appreciation of the magnitude
of those evils which are growing upon us, by the selfishness, in-
difference and neglect, which a mistaken impression of individual
security has cherished.

36. Insects may be defined as animals without vertebrae ; six-
footed ; with a distinct head furnished with two antennae, and a
pair of compound immoveable eyes ; breathing through open-
ings which lead to internal air tubes or trachae ; sexes distinct ;
adult state attained through a series of changes called metamor-
phosis.

37. Nearly every insect undergoes three changes, (fig, I., II.

28

PRIZE ESSAY

and III.) before it reaches its perfect condition. From the egg-
to the larva ; from the larva to the pupa ; and from the pupa

PUPA.— FIG. II.

CATEEPILLAE.— FIG. I.

MOTH.— FIG. III.

or chrysalis to the imago or perfect insect. The larvae of insects
are commonly distinguished in popular phraseology in the fol-
lowing manner :

Grubs are the larvse of the coleoptera or beetles ; maggots the
larvse of the diptera or two winged flies ; caterpillars the larvae
of butterflies, moths and sphinges.

38. Most insects breathe through small openings called stigmata,
spiracles or air holes, placed on the side of each segment of the
body. These air holes can be distinctly seen without difficulty
in.naked caterpillars (fig. I.) The opening can be closed at will
by the insect. The air holes are connected with ramifying tubes
called air tubes or trachse.

39. The following scheme of a systematic arrangement of in-
sects is based upon the peculiarities in the construction and

DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS.

29

number of the wings or organs of flight, as appears from the
derivation of the names given to the several orders. This ar-
rangement must be considered as representing the most marked
pecuHarities of each particular order, and susceptible of various
modifications as our knowledge of insect structure and analogies
increases ; it is in fact but one out of many systems which have
been proposed by entomologists, and is selected because it re-
cognizes many primary divisions which are employed in popular
descriptions, and which have been approved since the time of
Linnceus, their originator.

40. The primary divisions are termed orders ; the orders are
divided into sections ; the sections into families ; the families
into genera, and the genera into species or individuals. As it
will be absolutely necessary to refer from time to time to the
differents parts or organs of an insect, the annexed diagram of

Head.

J-Tliorax.

Abdomoti.

30 PRIZE ESSAY :

these organs, with their scientific designations, should be con-
sulted before perusing the description of the orders into which
insects are divided for the purpose of classification.

Order I.

Coleoptera. {KoJeas, a sheath ; ptera, wings.)

41. The Beetle tribe. "Wings four in number ; two for flight,
two for protection, and termed elytra, or wing cases. The
elytra are hard and horny. There are exceptions to this general
rule, which it is not necessary to mention here. The under
wings are membranous and transparent.

42. The larvse are popularly termed grubs, and commonly
possess twelve segments, exclusive of the head. The pupse are
incomplete, that is, each part of the perfect insect is visible,
and enclosed in a separate sheath, thus differing from the pupse
of butterflies in which the parts are all cased in one sheath.
Beetles are composed of three distinct parts, the head, the
thorax, and the abdomen. (Fig. IV.) The most prominent and
important parts of the head are the compound eyes, the two
antennae, the two mandibles or jaws, and the two maxillce or
under jaws. The insects of this order are all masticators.

43. The thorax is composed of the three segments of the
larvse body next to the head. In the larvse these are generally
very distinct ; in the perfect insect or beetle one of the segments
is often greatly enlarged at the expense of the other two. To
the thorax are attached the wings and the legs.

44. The abdomen is generally distinguished by the absence
of all external appendages, but in some insects we find an ovi-
positor, a pair of forceps, a hook, &c. The abdomen consists
of segments not exceeding nine in number. The openings for

DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 'M

the breathing organs may be observed near the lateral margin of
each segment.

45. The legs consist of five parts, the first joint, coxa or hip,
the second or trochanter, the third, the femur or thigh, the
fourth, the tibia or shank, and the fifth, the tarsus or foot. The
tarsus is composed of three, four or five joints, and terminates
generally in two-hooked claws. The tarsus is sometimes made
the basis of the sections into which the order coleoptera is
divided.

46. This order of insects is one in which the agriculturist is
particularly interested. It contains the tribe Rhincophera,
(snout beetles,) which is so numerous in species that not less
than 8,000 different insects belonging to it have been described
by one entomologist (Schoenherr.) It includes the insatiable
evils which are justly distinguished and dreaded for their attacks
upon grain and seeds. Immense quantities of Indian corn and
wheat in the crib or granary are destroyed every year in the
United States by the grain weevils, calandra granaria and calan-
(Ira remotepunctata.

Order II.

Orthoptera. (Orthos, straight ; ptera, wings.)

47. This order includes crickets, grasshoppers, locusts, ear-
wigs, cockchafers, the mantis tribe. Most of these insects are
eminently destructive to vegetation. Upper wings of the con-
sistency of parchment ; mouth with mandibles and maxillae.

Order III.

Neuroptera. {Neuron, a nerve ; ptera, wings.)

48. Dragon flies, May flies. Termites ; wings membranous,
naked and reticulated ; masticators.

32 PRIZE ESSAY :

Order IV.
Hymenoptera. {Hymen, a membrane ; ptera, wings.)

49. Wasps, bees, ichneumons, flies, &c. Many insects be-
longing to this order exhibit very remarkable peculiarities in
providing for their young, by laying up a store of food for win-
ter use. The busy bee, it is almost needless to mention. Some
members of the families into which this order is divided lay up
a stock of provisions consisting of larvae, and complete insects
by the side of theii* eggs, in holes gnawed in branches and
trunks of trees, and sealed up when full. The insects thus im-
prisoned do not appear to be quite deprived of life, but only so
much injured as to deprive them of the power of resistance to
the young larvse, whose food they are designed to be. The
admirably constructed cells of the mud wasp, found under the
eaves of nearly every house and barn in the country, is filled
with a store of spiders for its young. The " wise ant " belongs
to this order. Their burrows and mounds may be observed in
every garden and field. The natural history of the Hymen-
optera is full of instructive and most interesting facts, furnish-
ing examples of wonderful instinct and exquisite adaptation.
Wings naked and membranous, but not reticulated.

Order V.
Trichoptera. (Trichos, hair ; ptera, wings.)

50. Caddece flies.

Order VI.

Strepsiptei'a. (Strepsis, a turning ; ptera, wings.)

51. This order embraces a few minute parasitical species.

Order VII.
Hemiptera. {Hetnion, the half; ptera, wings.)

52. Bugs ; Aphidse, Cicadse, «&c. The peculiarity of the in-

DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 33

sects belonging to this order is found in the beak or rostrum,
which is formed for piercing and sucking, thus enabUng them to
find food in vegetable and animal juices. The chinch bug is a
noted member of this order. The following description of this
destructive insect will perhaps not be considered misplaced :
" Length, one and two-third lines, or three-twentieths of an
inch ; body black, clothed with a very fine greyish down, not
distinctly visible to the naked eye ; basal joint of the antennae
honey yellow ; second joint the same, tipt with black ; third
and fourth joints black ; beak brown ; wings and wing-cases
white ; the latter are black at their insertion, and have near the
middle two short irregular black lines, and a conspicuous black
marginal spot ; legs dark honey yellow ; terminal joint of the
feet and the claws black. The youngest individuals are vermil-
lion red, the thorax or anterior part of their bodies inclining to
brown, and a white band across the middle of the body, com-
prising the two basal segments of the abdomen. As they
increase in size they become darker, changing first to brown, and
then to a dull black, the white band still remaining. The anten-
nae and legs are varied with reddish. In their final or perfect
state they acquire white wings, varied with a few black spots and
lines."<i)

53. Dr. Fitch enumerates and describes many species of
Aphis infesting fruit trees, forest trees, crops and garden vegeta-
bles in the State of New York. Most of these are common in
Canada. A list of them will most probably serve to give us an
insight respecting the extraordinary variety and incredible de-
structiveness of this single genus of insects.

1. Aphis Caryella. — The little Hickory Aphis lives on the
under surface of the leaves.

2. Aphis Punctatella, the little dotted winged Aphis.

(1) Dr. Le Baron,— Prairie Farmer, 1850.

34

PRIZE ESSAY

3. Aphis Maculella, the Uttle spotted winged Aphis.

4. Aphis Fumipennella, the Httle smoky winged Aphis.

5. Aphis Marginalia, the little black margined Aphis.

6. Aphis Cerasi, the little cherry plant louse; very destruc-
tive to the cherry tree. Dr. Fitch calculated that on some small
cherry trees which he examined, ten feet high, not less than
twelve mi/lions of these creatures were on each tree.

7. Aphis Cerasifolise, the cherry leaf plant louse ; found on
the choke cherry.

8. Aphis Cerasicoldus, found on the common black cherry.

9. Pemphigus Carysecaulis, the hickory-gall Aphis.

10. Aphis Maidis, the maize Aphis.

11. Aphis Mali, the apple plant louse.

12. Aphis Malifolise, the apple leaf louse.

13. Aphis Prunifolise, the plum leaf louse.

In this order the Mandibles and Maxillae are replaced by a
sheath and sucker.

Order VIII.

Lepidojitera. {Lepis, a scale ; ptera, wings.)

.')4. Butterflies, Moths, &c. — This order comprehends the
most beautiful and richly ornamented individuals of the insect
world. In the caterpillar state they are exceedingly voracious,
feeding upon vegetables, hair, wool, &c., and not unfrequently
causing serious apprehension on account of their numbers and
ravages. In the perfect state they feed upon the nectar or
liquids of flowers, and it is stated that some species do not re-
quire food in the adult state. Among the destructive insects be-
longing to this order, we find the Tinea Granella, whose larvae
feed upon stored grain ; the GaUerea Cereana, living in bee-
hives ; the Carpocapsa PomoneUa, whose larvse feeds upon and
lives in apples, hence called the apple worm. Others eat the

DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 35

buds and leaves of pine trees, &c. Some species are of the
utmost importance to the industrial arts, as the silkworm family.
Others again greatly destructive, as the larvse of the Cossus Lig-
niperda, vphich burrows in willows, poplars, the ash, and other
trees. In another family of this order we find the peach worm,
the larva of Mgeria Exitiosa, the palmer worm, the larva of
Chcetochilus Pometellus, and a host of others.

Order IX.
Diptera. (Dis twice, ptera, wings.)

55. The distinguishing character of the Diptera is the single
pair of wings. The mouth is furnished with a proboscis, and
behind the true wings are placed two small organs, called poisers
or balancers, (halter es) one on each side. The larvae of these
insects are found in every conceivable situation ; some are aqua-
tic, others live in and on fungi, in carrion, in flowers, in galls, in
meat vats, «&c., &c. The perfect insect feeds vipon the juices of
vegetables, or the blood of animals, or decaying vegetable and
animal products, or on other insects. Many of the species are
eminently noxious and troublesome ; such are hot flies, grain
flies, mosquitoes, and numerous flies which torment and some-
times destroy domestic animals. It is suflicient to mention the
Hessian fly and the wheat midge to stamp this order with due
importance.

56. The technical characters of the genus (cecidomyia) to
which the Hessian fly and wheat midge belong, are as follows : —
"Wings resting horizontally, and having three longitudinal ner-
■vures ; head hemispherical ; antennae as long as the body, and
generally twenty-four jointed, the joints hairy ; (in the females
fourteen-jointed ;) the two basal joints short ; legs long ; basal
joint of the tarsi very short, second long.

36 PRIZE ESSAY :

Order X.

Aphaniptera. (Aphanes, inconspicuous ; ptera, wings.)
57- Fleas are emblematic of this order. It is said that com-
mon fleas (pidex irritans) not unfrequently lay their eggs under
the toe-nails of uncleanly persons ; the larvae is white and active,
acquires maturity in a fortnight, .and spins for itself a cocoon in
which it assumes the pupa states. The tropical chigo, is a much
dreaded pest in hot countries.

Order XI.

Thysanoura. (Thiazo, to dance ; oura, tail.)

58. Insects belonging to this order are often found on the sur-
face of water in summer and on snow in winter. In Pennsylva-
nia vast multitudes of a certain species were noticed in February,
1849, covering the snow for about a quarter of a mile with a
breadth of several rods. The species was probably the Podura
nivicola, one not uncommon in Canada.

Order XII.
Parasita.

59. This order embraces the disgusting parasitical insects call-
ed lice. The pedicuhis capitis, infests the human head. Leen-
wentrock, actuated by a desire to acquire information respecting
the habits of this insect, kept a male and female louse in his
stocking for eight weeks. He ascertained that in that short
space of time they might increase to five thousand. A species of
parasite is found infesting the human body in connexion with a
dreadful disease of the skin, named Phthiriasis. Many historical
names are associated with this terrible infliction ; among them
we find those of Herod, Plato, Antiochus, Epiphanes, and the
Emperor Maximilan.

DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 37

60. Another family of those insects are appropriately named
bird lice, from the animals on which they are found. Every
farmer is familiar with the parasitical insects found on sheep,
dogs, horses, oxen, &c.

The gnawing louse infecting the sheep (Trichodectes sphoe-
rocephalus) destroy the wool by cutting it near the root. The
ox is attacked by two kinds of lice, one being a sucking and the
other a gnawing insect. Indeed, it may be said generally that
every species of quadruped is inhabited by one or more species
of the louse tribe.

CHAPTER III.

The Hessian Fly.

Degree of attention excited liy this insect, 61.— Little that is new can be said about
it, 62. — Additional points in its history noticed in this essay, &o.— Origin oftlic
HesHan Fly, 64. — Importance of knowing whether it be a native or a foreigner,
64. — Australian wheat ravages in Canada, 65.— The Hessian fly, a European
insect, 67, 69. — Its progress on the American continent keeps pace with the
cultivation of vfheat, 68— Testimony of the Russian Entomologist, Mots-
chulskey, quoted by Dr. Asa Fitch and others, conclusive that the insect is of
European oroghi, Id.— History of its progress, in Lona Island, IN'ew York,
New England, Middle Atlantic States, whence it crossed the Alleghanies, ap-
peared in Lower Canada, in Mississippi valley, in North-western States of the
American LTnion, from 1776 to 1859, 71. Description of the Insect: the head
and thorax, 73.— Dr. Harris' description. Dr. Pitch's description of the female,
74.— The antennw, 74.— The ovipositor, 76.— The male Hessian fly, the antennie
and abdomen, 76. Habits of the Insect : Lays her eggs in autumn and in
spring, two broods each, 77.— Autumn brood, 78.— Maggots of the Hessian fly,
78.— Effects on the straw, 79, 80, 81, 82.— The underbill wheat, 82.— Injury to
the stem in the first instance, 84.— Change of maggot to pui)a, 85.— Flag-seed
state, 85, 86.— Dormant larvte, 87.— Pupa, 88.- Change to the fly, 88.— Wonder-
ful adaptation shown by the fly, 89.— Resistance of insects to cold, 90.— Illus-
trations of this, 91.— Second generation of the Hessian Fly, 92.— Gall fly
characteristic of the Hessian fly, 93. — Parasites, 94, 95, 96. — Parasites prey
upon the spring generation chiefly, 97. — Remedial 3Ieasures, 98, 99. — Enume-
ration of dift'erent remedial measures, a fertile soil, 101. — Vast crops of wheat
in Niagara County, N.Y., analysis of soil on which these extraordinary crops
were grown, 103. — Late sowing, 104 —Grazing, the roller, mowing, 104, 108. —
Fly proof, wheat so called, 108.— Undevhill wheat, Elima, Mediterranean,
white flint, Mr. R. Harmon's opinion of the white flint, 109.— Peculiarity in
the deterioration of wheats, 110.— Tillering of wheat, 111.— The Chidham
wheat, 112.— Early nob wheat, 113.— Steeps for the seed, 117.— Mr. Pell's steep
and success of, 115.— Steeps, experiment on, 116.— Steep for smut, proportions,
117, 118.— Oats as a decoy, wheat as a decoy, 118.— Deeply covering the seed,
119.— Proper depth for sowing, 119.— Pi-ocuring seed from uninfected districts,
120.— Sun drying the seed, 121.— Sprinkling salt, &c., 121.— Burning and plough-
ing up the wlieat stubble, 122. — General consideration of remedial measures^
123.— Benefit of steeping wheat, 124.— ' Sow Late,' 125.— Spring wheat, 126 —
Fife wheat, 126.— The cause of the spread of the Hessian fly, 127.— Apparent
periodicity, 128. — Sudden increase in various insects, 129. — Cause of sudden
increase. Dr. Fitch's opinion, 130. — Cultivation of its favored foid without
rotation, 131.

The Hessian Fly.

(Cecidomyia Bestructor.)
61. The distinguished entomologist of the State of New
York, Dr. Asa Fitch, in a history of the character, transforma-

THE HESSIAN FLY. 39

tions and habits of the Hessian fly, (i) written and })ubUshed
more than ten years ago, tells us that no other insect of the tens
of thousands which teem on this continent has received a tithe
of the attention or been chronicled with a tithe of the volumi-
nousness that has been assigned to this species. As a natural
consequence of this close iuACStigation, every point in its history
has from time to time been made public, so that very little that
is new can now be embodied in an account of the insect.

62. In strict agreement with the preceding paragraph, the
following account of the Hessian fly brings down its history to
the present day, briefly describes the extent and frequency of its
ravages, and the means which have been adopted, successfully
or otherwise, to guard against them, but does not profess to an-
nounce anything new with respect to the habits and econom}^ of
this alarming depredator.

63. Some few points in its history have been amplified, more
especially those which relate to the efi'ect which it, in conjunction
with the wheat midge, is likely to have upon the cultivation of
wheat in the north-western States of the American Union, and
the practical but expensive lesson it teaches the Canadian farmer
to recognize and adopt — that first law of goodhusbandry — rotation
of crops.

Origin of the Hessian Fly.

64. It appears at first sight to be a matter of Httle moment
to farmers whether the Hessian fly be a native of this continent
or an importation from Europe. As a question of natural his-
tory and public economy it is both interesting and important, as
it shows the necessity of acquiring information respecting the

(1) The Hessian Fly, its history, character, transformation and habits ; by Asa
Fitch, M.D., American Journal of Agriculture and Science, Vols. IV., V. Also, in the
transactions of the New York State Agricultural Society, 1846.

40 PRIZE ESSAY :

habits of both indigenous and foreign insects injurious to culti-
vated crops, so that the introduction of new species into this
continent, in the ordinary way of commercial traffic, or by the
curious in such matters, may, if possible, be prevented ; and if
by any means a new foreign insect should take up its residence
with us and attract public attention by its ravages, much valuable
and available information might be speedily disseminated from a
familiarity with the history of the depredator in those countries
where it had long been known, and of the means which were
there adopted to arrest its progress or lessen its destructiveness.

65. Instances are continually occurring which illustrate the
value of the kind of information referred to. During the last
few years two new importations of insects from Germany, de-
structive to the turnip, have been made in Great Britain. These
new arrivals are described in a paper (have mislaid the reference)
published in a recent agricultural Scottish journal.

The Australian wheat ravager, so destructive to the splendid
crops of grain produced in many parts of that magnificent coun-
try, has been brought to Canada as an entomological curiosity ;
and I am very credibly informed that several living specimens
are now in this country, closely, and it is to be hoped securely
imprisoned, in a glass bottle.

()6. It is quite possible from the habits of the Hessian fly in
its larvEe and pupa states, that it may have been brought into
America in straw or otherwise from some of the many European
countries, where it appears to have been well known long before
it committed on this continent those terrible devastations which
threatened at one time to arrest the cultivation of wheat in some
of the Atlantic States of the American Union.

07. A common impression prevails that this insect was intro-
duced into America by the Hessian troops in their straw from
Germany, during the year 177G, at which time the British Army,

THE HESSIAN FLY. 41

then in occupation of Staten Island, received large reinforcements
of Hessians under General de Heister. This idea has been ridi-
culed by many European entomologists, who have asserted that
the insect is strictly American. It appears, however, that its
existence has long been established and known in France, Ger-
many, Switzerland and some of the larger Islands of tlie Medi-
terranean ; probably for more than a century it has attracted at-
tention in those countries, although the extent of its ravages
may not have been known and consequently not recorded. (D

68. This insect was first noticed in America in Long Island in
the year 1/76, or 80 years ago. It proceeded inland at the rate
of fifteen or twenty miles a year, and in 1 789 it had reached 200
miles from its original station. (-) It is now found as far west as
Iowa and Minnesota, following the cultivation of wheat, wherever
that cereal is introduced in the westward progress of settlement
on this continent. The Southern States have suffered greatly
from its ravages, and it seems to adapt itself Anthout any diffi-
culty to all the climates which admit of the cultivation of its
favourite food.

69. In a communication with which the writer of this Essay
was favoured by Dr. Fitch, during February of the present year,
the following interesting notice occurs of the ravages committed
by the Hessian fly in the Provinces of Simbirsk and Saratov in
Russia during the year 1852.

In addition to the evidence I adduce, showing the Hessian fly
to be a European insect which has been introduced into this
country, I meet with thefollowing in the " Etudes Entomologique"
of the Russian naturalist, Motschalsky, page 23 : —

" Cecidomyia funesta, Motsch, voisine de la cec. destructor

(1) See an article by Mr. Herrick in the 12th vol. of the American Journal of
Science and Art. The Essay by Dr. Pitch, trans. N.V.S.A.S., 1846.

(2) Kirby and Spence.

D

42 PRIZE ESSAY :

" Say, mais de couleur moins fonc6e, qui parait avoir des mcEurs
" analogues avec I'espece d' Amerique. Elle a cause I'ann^ passee
" des grands ravages au froment des Gouv. Simbirsk et Saratov.
" Je I'ai decrite avec son parasite le platygaster funestus m.,
" dans le Journal du Ministere de I'lnterieur, 1852." I have
no doubt that this Russian insect is identical with our Hessian
fly, which, when first hatched, is paler than afterwards.

70. The foregoing paragraphs seem to show, without any re-
maining doubt, that the Hessian fly is a European insect, and
that its depredations have been known and lamented many years
before it was heard of or observed in America. "We may, there-
fore, accept the popular narrative of its introduction here, and
avail ourselves of all the information which the experience of its
past history, habits and ravages in Europe can afford.

History of its Progress.

71. The following records of the appearance of this destruc-
tive insect in the United States and Canada, have been collated
from various resources, but chiefly from the United States Patent
Office Reports ; Dr. Fitch's Essay ; the transactions of the New
York Agricultural Society ; American and Canadian agricultural
periodical publications, correspondence, &c.

About jthe year 1776 the Hessian fly was introduced into
Staten and Long Island from Europe.

1779.
Caused great damage to wheat in Long Island.

1786.
Appeared in New Jersey, 40 miles south-east of Staten Island ;
east end of Long Island ; Shelter Island.

1788.
Very destructive near Trenton, N.J. ; commenced its ravages
in the State of Pennsylvania.

THE HESSIAN FLY. 43

1789.

Reached Saratoga, 200 miles north of its original station;

very destructive there in 1791 ; continued until 1803, when it

disappeared. Re-appeared in 1845. Common in the middle

Atlantic States.

1790.

Very common and destructive in the middle Atlantic States of
the Union.

1791.

Less common in the middle States ; arrived in Delaware in

vast multitudes.

1792.

Destroyed in Delaware an immense quantity of wheat.

1797.

Appeared west of the Alleghany Mountains.

1801.

First appeared near Richmond, Virginia.

1802-3 and 1804.

Very destructive in Virginia.

1805, 1816.

Ravages not recorded ; probahly not general or in great excess

in the United States. Prevalent and destructive in some parts

of Lower Canada.

1817.

Ravages renewed in New York State, Pennsylvania, Maryland

and Virginia.

1818, 1819.
Noticed in Pennsylvania.

1820.

Common in Maryland and Pennsylvania.

1830-6.
Disappeared in Lower Canada.

1831.
Crops much injured in Seneca County, New York.

44 PRIZE ESSAY :

1842.
Very destructive in Pennsylvania ; Maryland and Ohio visited

by it.

1843.

Western Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia and Ohio all suf-
fered this year.

1844.

Very destructive in Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, "Wisconsin,
Iowa, Ohio, Western New York, west end of Long Island, Penn-
sylvania.

1845.

Destructive in Illinois and Maryland, very destructive in Geor-
gia ; disappeared from the districts in Michigan and Indiana,
where they had committed havoc the preceding year.

1846.
Very destructive in Maryland and ruinous in Georgia. Com-
mon in New York, parts of Western Canada and Eastern Penn-
sylvania. In Illinois, Wisconsin and Iowa, near the Mississippi.
Unusually destructive this year. In Georgia the Hessian fly
was observed to issue from its pupa case May 6th.

1847.
Common througbout the wheat growing States of the West.
Common in New York, but not generally destructive this year.
General, but not destructive, in the County of York, U. C. It
was observed very generally in the autumn depositing its eggs on
the young wheat over wide areas in the United States ; also in
County of York, Canada West. Great fears excited in the
United States for the safety of the harvest of the ensuing year.

1848.
"The crop of 1848 was, undoubtedly, one of the best and
largest ever grown." (i)

(1) Hon. C. P. Halcomb, of Delaware, TJ. S. P. O. Rep. 1849-50.

THE HESSIAN FLY. 45

1849.

Very general and destructive in some of the counties of New

York — Oswego, Albany, and Columbia Counties. Ravages great

in Ohio.

1850.

Disappearing from parts of Ohio, also from parts of Michigan.
" The Hessian fly, one of the enemies to our wheat growers,
visits us at intervals of from four to six years, continuing its
ravages through two or three seasons, and then apparently dis-
appears. "(^^

1851.

General improvement in Pennsylvania and Maryland ; Hes-
sian fly not troublesome. Virginia much improved ; the fly
" scarcely dreaded." No Hessian fly in Gallea County, Ohio ;
disappearing in Oakland County, Michigan, " for years." Not
troublesome in Indiana ; general insecurity from its ravages. In
Buckingham County, Vermont, 1851, the Hessian fly had almost
disappeared, and from its great diminution the farmers thought
they could sow their wheat in September, which resulted in the
immediate increase of the fly, and a consequent falling back to
late sowing and proper preparation of seed.

1852.

Hessian fly attacked wheat in Fauquier County, Virginia, when
sown before October. The same in Buckingham County, Ver-
mont. Not known to any extent in Penobscot County, Maine.

1853.
Committed great ravages in some parts of Pennsylvania —
Centre County and Clinton County.

1854.
Visited Niagara County, N. Y. " The Hessian fly is another
enemy of ours, and in trying to get an early crop of wheat by

(1) Northville, Wayne County, Mich. J. D. Takes, P. O. R.,1850.

46 PRIZE ESSAY :

early sowing, we constantly incur danger from the Hessian fly in
tbe fall of the year. If frost occur soon after wheat is sown in
the fall, in time to kill the Hessian fly, we rarely suffer much
from it. — Onondaga County, N. Y.(i) Wheat more or less in-
jured in Kent County, Michigan, when sown before the 20th
Septemher.<2) Destructive in Maine, (3) Aristook County.

Description of the Insect.

72. Numerous descriptions of the Hessian fly are to be found
in scientific and agricultural publications ; in all of the most im-
portant features these descriptions coincide. Perhaps the most
popular, and at the same time one of the most accurate delinea-
tions, is from the pen of the late Dr. Harris, in his admirable
" Report on Destructive Insects."

7Z. " The head and thorax of the fly are black ; the hind-
body is tawny, and covered with fine greyish hairs. The wings
are blackish, but are more or less tinged with yellow at the base,
where also they are very narrow ; they are fringed with short
hairs, and are rounded at the end. The body measures about
one-tenth of an inch in length, and the wings expand one-quarter
of an inch or more. ***** f j^g transformation of
some in each brood appear to be retarded beyond the usual time,
as is found to be the case with many other insects ; so that the
life of these individuals, from the egg to the winged state, ex-
tends to a year or more in length, whereby the continuation of
the species, in after years, is made more sure."(4)

74. In the admirable essay on the Hessian Fly, by Dr. Asa
Fitch, before referred to, a very exact description of the male

(1) Address of the Hon. G. Geddes, 1854.

(2) Pat. Off. Report, 1854. (3) P. O. R.

(4) I have not lately had an opportunity of referring to Dr. Harris' work, the
description given in the text is consequently second hand.

THE HESSIAN FLY.

47

and female insect is given, of which the following is an abstract.
The illustrations to which reference is made are taken from the
dramngs of the same author. The high standing of Dr. Fitch,
as an entomologist, coupled with the attention he has devoted
for many years to the history and habits of insects injurious to
vegetation and to the agriculturist, confers the utmost value upon
his delineations and descriptions.

The Female Hessian Fly.

75. The head and thorax of the female (Fig. I) are black.
The antennae (Fig. e) are about half as long as the body, and
composed of sixteen joints, each of a cylindric oval form, the
length being about double the diameter ; each joint is clothed
with a number of hairs, surrounding it in a whirl. The joints
are separated from each other by very short translucent filaments,
having a diameter about one third as great as the joints them-
selves. The thorax is oval and black ; the poisers are dusky ;
the abdomen is of a black colour above, more or less widely
marked at the satures (joints) with tawny fulvous, and furnished
with numerous fine blackish hairs.

(FIG. I.)
HESSIAN FLX— FEUALE (C destructOT.)

(EIG. e.)
JOINTS OF THE ANTENNA.

75. The ovipositor is rose-red. The wings are slightly dusky.
The legs are pallid brown, the tarsi black. The several pairs of

48

PRIZE ESSAY :

legs equal each other in length, being about one-fifth of an inch
long when extended, of which length the tarsus embraces one
half. Short basal joint indistinct.

The Male.

76. In the male (Fig. II) the antennae (Fig. d) are three-
fourths the length of the body.

The abdomen (Fig. II) consists of seven joints besides the ter-
minal one, which (viewed from beneath Fig. c) consists of a
transversely oval joint giving off two robust processes, armed
with in-curved hooks at the tips.

In the living specimen the abdomen is of a brownish-black
colour, more or less widely marked at the satures with pallid
fulvous or smoky whitish lines. In all other points the male
coincides with the female in its character.

V/

(FIG. b.)

Nat. Size.

(FIG. d.)
Joints of
Antenna

(Male.)

(PIG. c)

Ventral view of the
terminal segments
of the abdomen.

HESSIAN FLT— MAXE (FIG. II.)

Habits.

77. The Hesssian fly lays her eggs upon the young leaves of
wheat in the autumn (September) and in the spring (May).
Many observers have witnessed the fly in the act of depositing
her eggs at these seasons of the year.U) The eggs are placed
upon the upper surface of the young leaves of the autumn wheat.

(1) Mr. E. Tilghman of Maryland ; Mr. Merritt of Yale College, &c., &c.

THE HESSIAN FLY.

49

and sometimes exceed thirty in number. They are generally
arranged in the longitudinal depressions between the minute
ridges of the blade. Their appearance is that of very small
reddish coloured points or spots. Their length is consid-
erably greater than their diameter, and appears to bear the ratio
to the latter dimension of five to one, the length being about
one fiftieth of an inch, the breadth or diameter about one-two-
hundred-and-fiftieth. The form is cylindrical.

78. The eggs of the autumn brood are hatched within a week
of the time they are laid, if the weather be warm ; during the
prevalence of cold and unfavorable Aveather they may remain
unhatched for a period of three weeks. The white colored mag-
got as soon as it is liberated from the egg, passes down the leaf,
between the sheath and stem, until it reaches the first joint, (the

crown) ; here it becomes stationary
and apparently fixed upon the
stem (Fig. m and Fig. a §Jpar. 80),
nor does it change its position un-
til it assumes the form of the
inert worm or its pupa.'(n) It re-
poses with its head towards the
root of the plant.

79. "When young autumnal wheat is attacked by one or more
of the maggots, the infested shoots will be seen in the following
spring to be withered and changed to a straw colour. If two or
more shoots proceed from the crown of the root, those only to
which the maggot is attached will wither and die. In young
plants, death of the part affected is produced by the abstraction
of the nutritious juices which would otherwise be appropriated
to the nourishment of the shoot. The increased power of ab-
sorption and assimilation of food possessed by the plant when
the spring brood of the fly appears, (in May,) enables it to re-

(FIG. m.)

(FIG. ».)

50

PRIZE ESSAY

sist to a great extent the wasting attacks of the maggot, whose
attachment is then made to the second and sometimes the third
joint.

80. In young autumnal wheat the base of the sheath is at the
crown of the root, as shown in figure (A. §), and it is here that
the autumn brood of the fly must be sought for.

Appearance of a healthy (*) and of a diseased (f) shoot of wheat in autumn';— the
worms lying at (§).

THE HESSIAN FLY. 51

In the preceding diagram the right-hand shoot is represented
as withered and hfeless from the attacks of the maggot at the
crown of the root under the suface of the soil. The left hand
stem is free from any attack and consequently uninjured. The
process of tillering would throw out a number of new shoots
from the crown of the root to replace those which are des-
troyed.

81. The maggots appear to live wholly by suction. They do
not penetrate the stem, or make any apparent incision ; they
produce, however, a depression, caused by the obstruction they
offer to the growth of that part of the plant where they are
seated. These depressions, though not always apparent on the
outside, when produced by several maggots of the second brood
in the early summer months on the first or second joint, greatly
weaken the stem, and render it liable to be blown down and
broken by a light breeze of wind, when it has attained the attitude
it acquires on approaching maturity. Sometimes a swelling or gall
is the result of the attack as shown at (§ §) in Fig. B, page 56,
(paragraph 92.)

81^. The manner in which the maggot of the spring brood
affects the stem in the early summer months, seems to arise from
its presence preventing the deposition of the necessary amount
of silica or flint immediately under its body. It is well known
that the great strength of the hollow cylindrical stem of the
wheat plant is due to the large amount of silica it contains, and
where there is a deficiency of this strenthening material, the
stalk is unable to support the weight of the ear when agitated
by wind ; were the usual quantity of silica present the small re-
duction in the diameter or dimension of the stalk (supposing no
gall to be formed) at the point where one or more of the maggots
are seated would not materially interfere with its strength. The

52 PRIZE essay:

absence of silica seems to be the chief cause of its liability to
be broken by agitation.

82. The underbill wheat, so long cultivated and celebrated for
its immunity from the attacks of the Hessian fly, affords an
admirable instance of the silicious shield of the wheat stem re-
sisting the attacks of the fly. Those varieties of wheat which
produce strong flinty stalks have long been known not to suffer
much injury from the presence of the spring maggot. The na-
tural tendency of these varieties to assimilate large quantities of
silica, enables them to withstand the weakening effect due to the
insect, under which other varieties, naturally less rich in silica,
would succumb.

83. The preceding remarks refer solely to the injury caused
to the wheat plant by the weakening of the stem, and its frac-
ture before arriving at maturity. It is to be observed, however,
that the presence of two or more of the spring larvae of the
Hessian fly must operate very disadvantageously in other res-
pects. On thin-stemmed varieties the growth of infected stems is
often altogether arrested by fracture, if the maggot descends to
itsseat above thefirst or second joint before the plant has acquired
a strong and healthy growth, and under such circumstances
the field has been very appropriately likened to one through
which a herd of cattle had been making their way.

84. Since the injury occasioned by the larvae of both broods
of the Hessian fly is produced in the first instance upon the stem,
whether above the crown of the root in young wheat, or at the first,
secondorthird jointof thatwhich is farther advanced, itnecessarily
follows that a more or less healthy condition of those parts of
the plant will enable it to resist to a corresponding degree, the
attacks of the insect. A strong and vigorous tillering growth
in the fall (m) and spring is required to maintain a condition of
comparative health under the attacks of one or two of these para-

THE HESSIAN FLY.

53

sites, until maturity is attained. Hence the reason \\ hy vigor-
ous well-grown flinty stemmed varieties survive and yield a fair
return, while weak and sickly plants or thin-stemmed varieties
fail, no new stalks or shoots being formed in the fall or early
spring when the infested ones die, and in the early summer the
weak stems which have survived sink under the exhausting drain
of the spring brood. So far then the depredations of the Hes-
sian fly when not present in overwhelming numbers, may be
greatly lessened and in part overcome by good husbandry, and a
careful selection of seed of approved varieties.

85. When the autumn maggot has arrived at its full growth,
its outer skin, at the approach of winter, becomes detached from
the body, and serves first as a larva, and ultimately as a pupa or
chrysalis case. This separation arises from a general contraction
of the body of the maggot, whereby it occupies less space than
the outer skin, which invested it during its growing state. The
outer skin now acquires a tough consistency, and a dark brown
colour, somewhat similar to a flax-seed in appearance, hence the
name of this state of the insect, which might be more properly
distinguished as its cased larva
condition. The figures (o) and
(n) show the position and appear-
ance of these cased larvfe of the
Hessian Fly (flax seed state) on
the stems of wheat plants from
which the leaves have been torn
away. .

86. The maggot remains in this protecting case throughout
the long and cold winter months, without any marked
change of form, and is represented in Fig. (Jc), which
shows a magnified appearance of the worm when taken

(viQ.k.) out of its larvae case, &c. (i) and (j).

(FIG. n.)

(FIG. 0.)

54 PRIZE ESSAY

(VlG.g.) VW \— -/ (FIG. J.)

(FIG. 7i.) (FIG.i.)

DOESAL VIEW OF THE DORMANT LAEVA TAKEN FEOM THE LARVA CASE.

g. Magnified dorsal view of the worm or active larva, h. Magnified view of the
' flax seed ' or larva case. i. Magnified ventral view of the same. j. Magnified
lateral view of the same.

87. At the advent of spring the dormant larva assumes the
pupa or chrysalis state, still remaining vnthin its now pupa case,
which has become quite brittle, " breaking asunder tranversely
if rudely handled, and one of its ends slipping off from the en-

f closed pupa, like a thimble from the end of the
finger." (1) Fig. 1 shows the pupa removed from its
pupa case, and magnified like the preceding illustra-
FiG. 1. tions.

88. After remaining in this condition for ten days or a fort-
night it wriggles out of its case, works its way up to light and
air, emerges through its cracked pupa skin, and takes the form
of the fly, to live its short life ten days or more. Dr. Fitch
thinks that in all parts of the United States the Hessian fly will
probably be found in its fully formed pupa state, about a week
after the liverwort, (Hepatica triloba), the trailing arbutus,
(Epigsea repens), and the red or swamp maple first appear in
bloom, and simultaneously with the flowering of the dry straw-
berry (Comaropsis Fragarioides), the common five-finger (Po-
tentilla Canadensis), the hill-side violet (Viola Ovata).

89. The wonderful adaptation exhibited during the winter
sleeps of the larvse of the Hessian fly in its larvae case, to resist
atmospheric influences, such as great extremes of temperature,
moisture and drought, throughout the winter months, is perhaps

(1) Dr. Fitch.

THE HESSIAN FLY. 55

the most remarkable feature in the economy of this insect. A
somewhat similar provision is noticed in one of its kindred, the
wheat midge, which will he referred to hereafter. We see at
the close of autumn the larva preparing for its long dormant
winter state, not by changing its position, and seeking security
from wet, or frost, or drought, (for dry air is common in the
winter months), nor by spinning a cocoon, in which similar pro-
tection may be secured, but by shrinking within itself, and allow-
ing its outer skin to form a hard and impervious protecting shield
to its tender body, which remains soft and pliant within, and, as
far as we know, safe from all ordinary atmospheric changes.

90. The resistance of insects to the influence of intense cold
has long been known, but the source of the heat which enables
them to preserve their flexibility within their pupa cases during
the greatest extremes of temperature, still remains a mystery.
Dr. Wyman lately stated, at a meeting of the Boston Natural
History Society, that he had examined chrysalids of the com-
mon mud wasp, a species of pelopoeus, and found that they were
not frozen during the coldest weather.

91. On the morning of February 7th, 1855, when the ther-
mometer had fallen as low as 18 deg. Fah., or 50 degrees below
the freezing point, and had risen to 8 deg. Fah., the chrysalids
were still unfrozen, and when removed from their pupa cases
made obvious muscular motions. The pupa preserved its usual
transparency and flexibility ; but when crushed upon the surface
of the material on which they rested, the fluids of the body in-
stantly became opaque, and were congealed. Dr. Wyman has
also examined the eggs of the moth of the canker worm, and
found their contents unfrozen.

Second Generation of the Hessian Fly.

92. The following concise history of the second generation of

56

PRIZE ESSAY

the Hessian fly is from Dr. Fitch's admirable essay on this in-
sect : "About the first of May the fly appears^ and deposits its
eggs upon the same crop of grain that had already reared one
brood, and also upon any spring wheat that is sufficiently for-
ward for its purposes. The radical leaves of the winter wheat
are now more or less withered, and the fly therefore selects the
more luxuriant leaves that have put forth above these. The

ipp»»„e «f . he.,.l.y ,") «a two d.e.- sU-'^/J^-J-'Br^S
f-H-^ Stalk brolvcii, from bems weakened by the wornis. vii/
(tt) ^talk oroKcn, jiuu. u r. ■. „„a nprforatediby parasites coming

swollen from worms liavint; Inin under it, and peiioraieu^ j
from those worms.-From Dr. Fitch's Report.

THE HESSIAN FLY. 57

worm hatches, and again makes its short journey to its future
home, at the hase of the sheath ; it consequently now nestles at
the first and second joints of the young stalk, and is sometimes,
though rarely, as high as the third joints. Even before the
worm reaches the base of the sheath, it has frequently grown
nearly to its full siee, (as shown Fig. m., para. 78.) The stalk
has now attained such A^igour and hardiness that it is seldom
destroyed by this spring attack. A slight swelling immediately
above the joint, (Fig. B §§) commonly indicates the presence of
the larva beneath."

39. " This is afact which has been overlooked, or at ieastnot dis-
tinctly stated by writers hitherto. "We only find it noticed by
Mr. Bergen, (Cultivator, VIII, 133,) who informs us that in a
crop of barley which was destroyed by the Hessian fly, many of
the stalks were 'at the joints, as thick as a man's finger.'
The insect is, therefore, a true gall-fly, although when but one
larva succeeds in reaching the joint, the swelling caused by it is
little if at all apparent. More commonly, however, the straw
becomes so weakened that it is imable to sustain the weight of
the wheat-head, and it accordingly bends down (as represented,
Fig. B ft,) with the force of the wind and rains. The appear-
ance of a badly infested field, as harvest time approaches, can-
not better be described than in the words of M. Koliar. The
grain looks as though a herd of cattle had passed through it, so
broken and tangled together is the straw. The worm attains its
growth and enters its flax-seed state about the first of June, and
the flies of this second generation come forth about the last of
July, and in August."

Parasites.

94. The excessive multiplication of all kinds of insects is pro-
videntially kept within bounds by a well known law, which

58 PRIZE ESSAY :

appears to assign to each species one or more destructive para-
sites, which prey upon them during all stages of their existence.
"Were it not for this wise provision, some of the most prolific and
hardy tribes, being exclusively vegetable feeders, would prevail
to the exclusion of all others. The Hessian fly has numerous
parasites, which have been studied with marked success by Mr.
E. C. Herrick. Mr. Herrick's papers, published in the "Amer-
ican Journal of Science," (vol. XLI.,) and in the Patent Office
Reports for 1844, are most favorably spoken of by Dr. Fitch,
who states that these papers evince the close and patient investi-
gation which the writer has made, and the utmost carefulness in
announcing nothing beyond what he had clearly ascertained.

95. In Dr. Fitch's essay, published in 1846, he introduces the
following brief sketch of that part of Mr. Herrick's papers on
the Hessian fly, which relates to parasites :

" The Hessian fly is preyed upon and devoured by at least four
other insects. When its eggs are layed upon the wheat leaves,
they are visited by an exceedingly minute four-winged fly, a spe-
cies of Platygaster,) which punctures the egg, and deposits in it
four or six eggs of its own. The Hessian fly worm hatches,
grows, and passes into the flax-seed state, with these internal foes
feeding upon it. It now dies, and its destroyers in due time es-
cape from the flax-seed shell. Three other minute four-winged
flies, or bees, as they would be called in common language, de-
stroy the fly when in its flax-seed state. The most common of
these, by far, is Say's ceraphon destructor. Alighting upon the
wheat stalks, ins-tinct informs them precisely where one of these
flax-seeds lies concealed. They thereupon ' sting' through the
sheath of the stalk, and into the body of the worm, placing an
egg therein, which hatches to a maggot, lives upon and devours
the worm.''

96. " Such are the means which nature has provided for pre-

THE HESSIAN FLY, 59

venting this pest from becoming unduly multiplied. And so ef-
ficient and inveterate are these foes, that more than nine-tenths
of all the Hessian fly larvse that have come into existence are
probably destroyed by them, Mr. Herrick thinks, and we have
strong reasons for believing that his estimate is within the
truth."

97. It has been suggested that it is principally the second or
spring generation upon which the parasites prey. The immense
abundance of these parasites is easily ascertained by collecting
the infested straw at harvest time, and securely enclosing it to
preserve all the insects which hatch from it. Parasites in abun-
dance will be obtained, and only occasionally a Hessian fly ;
whereas young plants taken up in April by Dr. Fitch, evolved
only Hessian flies. The observations of a single season are not
considered sufficient to establish a point like this, but coupled
with the apparent difficulty of the short ovipositors of the para-
sites reaching the flax-seeds of the first generation at the first
joint of the plant, and consequently under the surface of the
earth to a slight extent, favours the suspicion that the second
generation is chiefly infested by parasites, and the first compara-
tively free from them. This supposition appears quite in ac-
cordance with the operations of other agents limiting the pro-
duce of the first generation, for they have all the vicissitudes of
a long winter, and the changeable atmospherical conditions of
spring, to overcome.

ON THE MEANS THAT HAVE BEEN ADOPTED IN ORDER TO
LESSEN THE RAVAGES OF THE HESSIAN FLY.

98. No one, even remotely familiar with insect economy, and
the admirable purposes these minute creatures are designed to
fulfil in preserving a proper equilibrium between the vegetable
and animal world, will suppose that any remedy, properly so

60 PRIZE ESSAY :

called, fitted to arrest the devastations of tlie Hessian fly alto-
gether, could ever be put in general operation, even were such a
remedy found to exist.

99. We can check, and partially avoid, their ravages, but we
cannot obtain entire immunity at all seasons from the attacks of
this insect. Where good husbandry prevails, we may indeed so
far diminish their depredations that they will cease to be regard-
ed with anxiety ; but we shall be at all times liable to temporary
invasions from other quarters where a careless, selfish or igno-
rant system of farming practice obtains, and also when seasons
remarkably favorable for insect multiplication occur. (Par. 24.)
These contingencies need only compel that degree of watchful-
ness which every farmer should continually exercise upon all
natural phenomena.

100. I now propose to enumerate the different methods which
have been adopted in the United States and elsewhere to arrest
the progress and destructiveness of this insect, and to state in a
few words the nature of the result obtained. As this part of the
subject is one of much importance, I have not scrupled to dwell
upon each so called remedy according to its merits. We must
bear in mind too, that while endeavouring to secure a way of
escape from the depredations of the Hessian fly, we do not blindly
point out the road to certain destruction from the wheat midge
on the one hand, and rust on the other.

101. 1. A fertile soil. "We regard this as a primary and
indispensable measure and one which must accompany others in
order to their full success." (i) From what has been said in pre-
ceding paragraphs (84), good husbandry must necessarily play
the first part as a remedial measure. And good husbandry im-
plies a fertile soil. In other words the apphcation of manure,
deep ploughing, and the introduction of a judicious rotation of

(1) Pitch.

THE HESSIAN FLY. 61

crops. The Hessian fly has in some instances been instrumental
in compelhng farmers to have recourse to a rational system of
farming practice. Mr. Ezra L'Houmediea tells us in the Genessee
farmer, that in his county (Suffolk, N.Y.) the land was so con-
stantly tilled without manuring, that on an average not more
than five or six bushels to the acre of wheat was raised. The
Hessian fly put an end to this kind of husbandry, no other way
being found to prevent injury to this crop by the insect than that
of highly manuring the land.

102. We need not cross the frontier for examples of the en-
couragement which has been afforded to the Hessian fly and
the wheat midge, during the past quarter of a century, to take
up their abode in our midst. We everywhere find a practice
similar to that related by Mr. L'Houmediea obtaining in Canada,
and there are many reasons why such a system should have pre-
vailed before railroads opened up the country and created a mar-
ket for produce, and few cared to look forward to the future con-
dition of their farms.

103. By way of contrast to the foregoing paragraphs, it may
be well here to notice the magnificent crops of wheat obtained
in 1852 in Niagara County, N.Y., on the Canadian frontier;
they are recorded in the Patent Office Report for 1853, by Mr.
Heman Powers of Lewiston. In 1849-50 Mr. William Hotchkiss
had a field of six acres which averaged 63^ bushels to the acre,
weighing 63fts. to the bushel. The seed was ' Soule's wheat.'
Mr. Thomas Powell of the same County, raised in 1853, 489
bushels from a field of seven measured acres ; this showing a
yield of nearly 70 bushels to the acre. The circumstances under
which this large yield was produced were as follows : —

In the fall a heavy dressing of swamp muck was applied.
During the winter the field was used as a yard for stock, includ-
ing a flock of sheep. In May was carted on a liberal coating of

62 PRIZE ESSAY :

arm-yard manure which was immediately ploughed in very deep.
Up to the 15th August, it was used at night as a sheep yard,
when the field was again ploughed three times, until the soil was
perfectly pulverized. Two hushels to the acre of ' Soule's wheat'
was then sown hroodcast, and covered with a light plough which
completed the process. The variety known in Western New
York as " Soule's Wheat" is in fact no other than the very best
Genessee " White Flint," having a stiff straw and maturing
early.

The following is Professor Emerson's analysis of this soil : —

Water of Absorption 3.00

Organic Matter 7.75

Silicates 7G. 93

Carbonate of Lime 2.82

Phosphate of Alumina 0.15

Magnesia 0.25

Peroxide of iron and Alumina 8.82

99.72
104. 2nd. Late Solving. "We regard it as one of the most
efficient, as it certainly is the most facile of any that can be re-
sorted to."(') " It is universally admitted that it is the earliest
sowed fields which are always the most infested." (2) Objections,
— winter killing, rust and wheat midge. Remedies to these, —
draining, protecting with litter or cow dung, and for rust see
paragraphs 190 to 227. Time of sowing, about the last week in
September, seed being properly prepared for reasons given else-
where and in appendix. Depth of sowing, 2 — 2\ inches.
Depth of ploughing, 6 to 8 inches or more. In parts of Ohio
late sowing is found to be a very excellent artifice, the varieties
sown being the " Soule and white-blue stem ;" these have nearly

(1) Fitch. (2) Ibid.

THE HESSIAN FLY. 63

" driven the Illinois, Mediterranean, Redchaff, Bald, &c., out of
cultivation," (1852.)

105. 3rd. Grazing. This measure is alluded to as worthy of
attention, " we cannot, therefore, hut regard this as a most judi-
cious and important measure if seasonably resorted to."(^^

106. 4th. The Roller. " No doubt this measure is a judicious
one." <2> It shakes off the eggs, and crushes the young worms,
the condition of the groiind must be particularly attended to be-
fore this remedial measure is employed.

107. 5th. Mowmif. A valuable proposal for exterminating
the second or spiing brood from a wheat field.>«3^

108. 6th. Fly-proof Wheats. 'That there are any kinds of
wheat which ai"e perfectly -"fly-proof " (to use a common and
expressive term) as has been sometimes stated, we wholly disbe-
lieve. '<'i5 Among famous varieties we find the following : —

1st. Und^rhill Wheat — a strong silicioas stemmed variety —
flour good.

2nd. Spelter Wheat — flour isadifferent,

3rd. Clima Wheat — ripens early, and yields largely.

4th. Mediterranean Wheat, introduced into Maryland in 1837
— very prolific, very coarse, ripens early, and a very general
favourite in the United States- Is considered almost ily-proof,
but soon becomes acclimated, and, although it improves in quality,
it loses its '' fly-proof" qualities (see paragraph 110). The
Mediterranean wheat is a slight red chaff, with a long stiff beard,
and a long red and very flinty berry.

7th. The Etriiriau Wheat — very proliiie, very early ripener,
and has none of the defects *of the Mediterranean. A bald wheat,
with a round plump white kernel, and very thia bran.

8th. The White Flint Wheat. * One of the choicest varieties

{!) Fitch. {2J Ibid. (3} Ibid. Li} Ibid.

64 PRIZE ESSAY :

of Western New York, withstands the attack of the fly better
than any of the other kinds there in use.'

109. Mr. Rawson Harmon, in a report of experiments on the
Yarieties of wheat cultivated in the State of New York, and to
whom a premium for the experiments was awarded by the N.Y.
S. Agricultural Society, says that the white flint variety has with-
stood the Hessian fly better than any other i>ow cultivated. The
solidity of the straw at the root gives the fly less chance of de^
stroying it. " Some of the stalks of this variety will be so eaten (?)
as to fall down, yet mature the herry ; while in other varieties,
after it has fallen from the injury of the fly, the greater part of
it fails to mature." (1)

1 10. Mr, H. G. Stew^art, af Montrose, Lee County, Iowa, re-
ports that the variety of winter wheat called the ' Mediterranean*
is the only kind known there whidi escapes the attacks of the
Hessia.n fly. At the same time, Mr. Stewart reminds us of the
very important peculiarity of rapid deterioration which is fre-
quently observed in change of climates. The Mediterran-ean
wheat does not ripen in Iowa so soon, by ten days, as ii did^ye-
years ago, and is consequently more liable to rust, and the at-
tacks of ath^r wheat pests. (-) The white blue-stem is also fast
deteriorating in the State of Pennsylvania. "Our crops this
year fall below 10 bushels to the acre."(^)

111. Certain varieties of wheat possess the pro}>ei'ty of ' tiller-
ing' to a much greatjer extent than others under the same ox
similar conditions. It is evident that this power of throwing out
fresh stalks is one of great importance in resisting the autumn
attacks of the Hessian fly. Certain stems ai'e sacrificed to its
ravages, these are replaced by others which shoot out after the

(1) Transactions of the N.Y.S.A. Society. Page 218, 131&.
(■2) Patent Office Report, 1864. Agricultui-e-
(3) Ibid. Page 147.

THE HESSIAN FLY.

65

first steins are weakened or destroyed, and so preserve the crop
from the autumn attack, while it is well known that on good soil
the spring brood is not half so destructive as its predecessor.
Tillering is largely increased by room, and limited by crowding.
Late tillering retards the ripening of the crop, increases the dan-
ger of rust and the midge, and deteriorates the quantity of the
grain. Fall seeding recovers the tendency to tiller by occupying
the ground, and thus hastens the maturity of the crop.

112. The Chidham Wheat, introduced by the Secretary of the
N.Y.S.A. Society into America in 1851, and distributed by him
in various localities, fulfils the condition of ' tillering' to a re-
markable degree. " A remarkable feature in its character is its
great multiplicity of stalks, many of which were counted, aver-
aging from 50 to 60 to each stool."(^) Cultivation has a vast
deal to do with ' tillering,' so also has the variety of seed. This
property is of importance sufficient to merit careful and exact
enquiry into the best modes in which it may be made available.
Mr. Lauce, of Blackwater, Bagshot, England, obtained from one
seed, by subdivision and cultivation, 43,000 grains.

113. In a Report furnished to the Patent Office, dated Feb-
ruary 5th, 1855, "on the seeds and cuttings recently introduced
into the United States." A variety of wheat from the central
part of France is highly recommended for trial. It is named
" Early Noe Wheat" (ble de I'lle de Noe) after M. de Noe, who
first introduced it into France, It is hardy and productive, has
the property of ripening some days before the common sorts.
It is generally known in the parts of France where it is cultivated
by the name of ' ble bleu.' This property of ripening early is
of immense advantage if coupled with a strong flinty stem, as

(1) "W. R. Coppock, Esq., Black Rock, Erie Coiinty, N.Y. Trans. N.Y.S.A.S., 1853.
Mr. Miller, the curator of the Botanical Gardens at Cambridge, England, obtained,
by continued division of the growth of a single grain of wlieat, 500 plants which
yielded, by computation, 567,840 grains.

66 PRIZE ESSAY :

one plant will then furnish two highly important qualifications
required to resist the Hessian fly, the wheat midge and rM*^ con-
jointly. (Para. 224.)

114. 7th. Steeps for the Seed. "Much lies within the com-
pass of human instrumentality to accelerate the growth of vege-
tation, by means of this kind."(i) It is probable that a great
advantage in many respects will be found to flow from a judicious
adoption of this artifice. Not only is growth accelerated, but
the steep may be made to possess great fertilizing properties ;
and steeps are constantly employed as a preventive to smut.

115. Mr. Pell, of Penam, N.Y., prepared his seed wheat by
soaking in brine, scalding with hot water containing common
salt, mixing with pearl ashes, and when distributed nicely over a
barn floor by sifting a composition containing charcoal dust,
guano, sulphate of ammonia, and various other mineral ingre-
dients over it. It was sown at the rate of two and a half bush-
els to the acre ; at the expiration of fifteen days the wheat was
so far above ground as to be pronounced by a neighbour far in
advance of his which had been sown in the usual way on the first
of September, nearly four days earlier. The crop weighed Go lbs.
per bushel, and was eminently rich in gluten, containing 18 per
cent. The yield per acre was about 70 bushels. (2)

117. In another part of this essay a steep for wheat as a pre-
ventive to smut is noticed, (par. 230) and it may be remarked
here that the following proportions will serve the purpose : —

Two and one half pounds of sulphate of soda (Glauber's salts)
dissolved in one gallon of water, will serve for ten bushels of
wheat ; the moistened or soaked grain may be dried with quick-
lime. Arsenic and sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) should be
avoided ; both are poisonous, especially arsenical compounds.

(1) Fitch. (2) Pat. Off. Rep.

THE HESSIAN FLY. 6/

118. In steeping or pickling wheat in strong chamber ley, a
practice both common and beneficial, the use of lime for drying
should by all means be avoided. Gypsum should be employed
instead ; but of all substances, finely powdered charcoal, as a
most efficacious absorbent of the ammonia of the urine, is to be
recommended. For further observations on the pickling or
steeping of wheat, as a method of preparing the seed for rapid
growth and immunity from smut, see paragraphs 231, 232, 232a.

8th. Oats as a Decoy. — The oats being ploughed in after the
deposition of the egg — " if the fly will deposit its eggs upon
oats." This remedy is equivalent to late sowing. (^^

9th. Wheat as a Decoy. — If two or three acres across the
middle of a large field be sowed Avith wheat about the middle of
August, all the flies in the vicinity will be attracted to this point,
and there retained, so that it will be safe in ordinary seasons to
sow the remainder about the middle of September. Plough the
early sowed wheat under, and bury the unhatched eggs and mag-
gots. In years when "clouds" of Hessian flies migrate, it is
evident that this remedy would be of little avail, if the season
were at all late. The measure should receive a fair trial from
some intelligent wheat grower, in a district suffering under this
pest.(^)

119. 10th. Deeply Covering the Seed. — '"Good as a subordi-
nate measure, but it falls far short of ranking as a primary
one." (3) I am much inclined to doubt the value of this reme-
dial measure ; late and shallow sowing, with a properly steeped
seed, and deep preparation of the soil, should go together. The
most trustworthy experiments have shown that deep sowing is
destructive to a very large majority of the seeds committed to
the ground. Out of 150 seeds of wheat sown at difl'erent

(1) (2) (3) Fitoh.

12

All of them.

18

7-8tlis of them,

20

G-8ths " "

21

4-8ths " "

22

3-8ths " "

23

One came up.

68 PRIZE ESSAY :

depths, 140 out of the numher came up from a depth of 2
inches, 40 from a depth of 4|- mches, and 14 from a depth of
6} inches. Another experiment gave the following result :(i)
Seed buried ^ inch deep, up in 1 1 days 7-8ths of them.

c£ es 1 (c s(

(( is 2 " "

tt a o cc ((

ee <i ^ (( £C

<t << n <( «

<« <( Q li (I

120. 1 1th. Procuring Seed from Uninfested Districts — Of no
utility ; the eggs are not deposited in the seed. The only pos-
sible value of this artifice would be to obtain early varieties of
wheat, or seed from a considerable distance (two or three degrees)
to the south of the localit^^ where it is intended to sow, where-
by to ensure it maturity, for a few years, some days earlier than
acclimated varieties.

121. 12th. Sun Drying the Seed. — Germination retarded,
therefore equivalent to deferring sowing for a few days.

13th. Drawing Elder Bushes over the Plants. — A fancy.

14th. SprinJding Salt, Ashes, or Caustic Lime, over the Young
Plants. — This top dressing serves as a manure, and nothing
more. It will strengthen the plant and accelerate the period of
its maturity.

(1) Petri.

(2) This applies to the seed obtained from the shores of tlie Mediterranean, and
sown in Canada or the Northern States, but whether its peculiarity be dependent
upon change of soil or climate, or both, is not yet fully established. It is known
that in Sweden the farmers are in the habit of obtaining- their seed from the north
of tlie Gulf of Bothnia, and sowing it on the most exposed farms of the southern
part of the country, where the season is short. The effect is to advance the ripening
by several days the first season. Whether wheat grown at the Sagucnay, or in dis-
tricts below Quebec, would ripen much earlier than an acclimated kind in Western
Canada, does not appear to have been fully tried. Both this and the opposite ex-
periments are well worthy of trial.

THE HESSIAN FLY. 69

122 \^\h. Burning and Ploughing %(,p the Wheat Stubble. —
Dr. Fitch says : " We commenced our account of this remedy,
impressed with a belief that it was the best that had ever been
proposed ; we close it, persuaded that it is the very worst." By
burning the stubble, you burn the parasites of the fly, which, as
has been shown, destroy nine-tenths of each generation. (See
paragraph 96.)

We cannot give assent to the very sweeping denunciation of
this remedial measure contained in the foregoing sentence. It is
quite clear that before the parasites accumulate so as to over-
come the Hessian fly, the artifice is worthy of adoption. With
the exception of certain seasons, the ravages of the fly are local,
and may therefore be arrested by this artifice. It has received
so many favorable notices from diff"erent quarters, that it is cer-
tainly worthy of trial. We subjoin an extract from the " Gene-
see Farmer" (1849) on this subject :

" This destroying insect is becoming more and more plenty
over the whole wheat district, subject to slight variations through
the eifect exercised over them by the severe and open ^-inters
and frosts. That they are extremely local, and, when once
colonized, do not emigrate far, when they can find a proper pa-
bulum for subsistence near home, we have been a long time satis-
fied. A respectable and extensive farmer in Pennsylvania states
that he has, for ten years past, almost entirely prevented their
depredations by burning over the stubble directly after cutting
his wheat, and before they had changed from the larvaa to the
winged state ; while fields in his immediate neighborhood were
, destroyed.

" This view of the subject is remarkably confirmed by a case
related to us a few days since by one of our best wheat farmers
in this section. His crop was so entirely destroyed that it did
not pay for harvesting, and the land being in fine tilth he resolved

70 PRIZE ESSAY :

to follow it again with wheat, and consequently turned it over
pretty soon after. About the first of September he commenced
cross-ploughing, and when about half the field was finished, the
other half looked in such good order that he omitted ploughing
it, and sowed his wheat. The next summer the grain was so de-
stroyed on the part twice ploughed, that he did not harvest it,
while the other was a full average crop.

*' The rationale is plain ; the insect, when in the worm state, was
ploughed under with the stubble, and on that part twice ploughed
was brought up again, hatched out, and attached their eggs to
the young wheat — while in that part but once ploughed they
were buried beyond their power of getting to the surface, and
were destroyed."

In 1851 Mr. John Delafield, in a general view and agricultu-
ral survey of the County of Seneca, N. Y., taken under the di-
rection of the New York State Agricultural Society, tells us that
the Hessian fly has ceased to be a formidable enemy there, pro-
bably for two reasons ; " first, the period of sowing the seed
grain has been retarded until a period too late to offer a nidus to
the fly ; and second, the soil is better prepared by due fertility,
to give the plant vigour to resist the influence of the larvse."

123. The remedial measures which have been enumerated,
either imply the presence of the Hessian fly in destructive abun-
dance, or contemplate invasions from neighboring districts. They
may be thus briefly summed up for xointer loheat :

1st. Have your soil in good heart and order.

2nd. Drain as much as is consistent with true economy in Ca-
nada, and plo;;gh deep.

3rd. Sow late an approved flinty stemmed variety, and an early
ripener.

4th. Prepare the aeed for rapid germination and growth by

THE HESSIAN FLY. 71

Steeping, and afterwards drying in some special manure. (i) (See
Appendix for drying manure.)

124. With reference to steeping wheat before it is sown, there
can be no longer any dowbt as to the benefit it confers, when
properly done, both in accelerating germination and future
growth, and in preventing, or greatly diminishing, the affection
of smut. (See Smut, ^ 231,)

125. The recommendation " Sow Late/' to avoid the Hessian
fly, appears to be diametrically opposed to the advice given in
paragraph 121, &c., to avoid the ravages of the wheat midge,
and that dreadful scourge " rust." It is to meet the case of a
simultaneous presence or appearance of both Hessian fly and
wheat midge, that late sowing, with a forcing preparation of the
seed, is recommended and practised. If acting with special re-
ference to an individual insect, one would sow late to avoid the
Hessian fly, or early to avoid the wheat midge ; but it is very
manifest that under ordinary methods of culture, if both insects
prevail (and they may now always be expected) during the same
year, or if they succeed one another, the crops must suffer from
the attacks of one of them. Tlierefore, it is better to be ready for
both contingencies, sowing late on well prepared land to avoid
the Hessian fly, and anticipating the arrival of the midge by
stimulating your crops to attain, before winter sets in, the same
development of parts which they would hare acquired by being
a fortnight longer in the soil, taking care at the same time to se-
lect a good variety of seed, flinty stemmed, and an early ripener,
and one which is not acclimated. This subject of ripening early

. will be more particularly alluded to in the chapter on the Wheat
Midge.

126. With respect to spring wheat, it has been urged that the

(1) Lime (?) Gypsum, Charcoal, &c. Experiments on this subject not completc-
(&ee Appendix.)

72 PRIZE ESSAY :

election of varieties which can be sown so late as to escape the
May attack of the Hessian fly, the June and July attack of the
midge and rust will cover all contingencies. Can this be accom-
plished ? Have we such a variety of wheat as will satisfy
these conditions ? The late lamented Mr. Wade, of Cobourg,
recommends the ' Fife Wheat,' which is described in paragraph
161. The ' Fife Wheat,' or as it is called in the Townships east
of Lake Simcoe, Scotch wheat, is there a great favorite. It is not
' liable to rust,' may be safely sovra much later than many other
varieties, and it is at the same time very productive. For addi-
tional notice of the Fife Wheat, see paragraph 1 G 1 .

The Cause of the Spread of the Hessian Fly.

127. A point of interest in the history of this insect is the
stated apparent periodical character of its visits. A little reflec-
tion will show that this seeming regularity may be attributed to
causes which are independent of one another, but yet have an
important bearing upon its multiplication or diminution. The
first and probably the most influential relates to the general
wide spread cultivation of its favourite food ; the second to the
favourable meteorological conditions of the season : these stimu-
late and encourage its increase ; the third affects the diminution
of its numbers, and involves the excessive multiplication of the
parasites which prey upon it.

128. Under the article 'Wheat Midge,' paragraphs 158-9, a
much more apparent periodicity is observable in the successive
appearances of that insect. The following notices of the exces-
sive appearance of certain insects in the United States and Ca-
nada, with the character of the season during and immediately
preceding their visit may prove interesting. They are not ad-
vanced with any expectation that a near approach to a clue to
the cause of the greater or less distribution of the Hessian fly

THE HESSIAN FLY. 73

in different years will be attained, but rather to direct attention
to a class of extremely interesting natural phenomena which can-
not fail to become of value as they accumulate,

129. (1) It has long been known in Germany that the race of
pine beetles increased most in warm dry summers, followed by cold
dry winters. 'Hot weather shortens the period of transformation,
and thus affording time for the maturation of the several broods,
causes a superabundant number of insects to be found.' (^^

(2.) The oak trees in Devonshire have suddenly appeared stud-
ded with gallnuts during the last three or four years, and in
numbers so abundant as nearly to equal the leaves. (2) The Hes-
sian fly and wheat midge are true gall flies, and the sudden in-
crease of one of their kindred giving rise to the common gall-
nut in countless multidudes, shows how universally the capability
of rapid and unexpected increase is shared by different species
of this allied generation.

(3.) See paragraph 160.

130. In the communication to the writer, (before referred to)
dated Feb. 2nd, 1857, Dr. Fitch says : " It has long been my
opinion that the great multiplication of the insect depredators
on wheat, and of insects generally, which takes place in particu-
lar years, is caused in part, at least, by certain peculiarities of the
atmosphere of that and of the preceding year. This subject is
alluded to under several of the species in my reports. What
those atmospherical peculiarities are, in the case of any particular
insect, is yet unknown to us. One of the general laws relating
to this matter, I think, will be found to be this — that whatever
peculiarities of the season occasion a luxuriant growth of a par-
ticular plant, will also favour the multiplication of the insects
feeding upon that plant. But we are here treading upon slippery

(1) David Gorrie, Esq., ; Farmers' Note Book ; Highland Agr. Soc. Trans.

(2) Illustrated London News, March, 1857.

74 PRIZE ESSAY :

ground. It is a very obscure subject, requiring an extended
series of very careful observations to lead us to the exact truth.
And in such enquiries as this we are very liable to be misled, and
to mistake mere coincidences for established laws. For instance,
if an insect has been observed in two or three instances to be very
numerous, say, after an unusually wet season, we should confi-
dently conclude such a season to be the cause of its multiplica-
tion. But it may perchance again show itself in equal abun-
dance after a dry season. Authors have so often been humiliated
by having their speculations falsified in ways analogous to this,
that I have felt disinclined to venture ujjon such precarious
ground, except with the utmost caution. It is a most importaiat
topic, however, and all the facts which fall under our observation,
having a bearing upon it, should be recorded, and in time such
records will lead to correct theories in the premises."

131. There can be no doubt that the excessive and continuous
cultivation of its favourite food, wheat, without rotation, has
fostered, encouraged and cherished the Hessian fly, and indeed,
all other wheat depredators, vmtil they have become firmly estab-
lished in the country, and always to be looked for and guarded
against. Little or no rotation has been allowed to interfere with
their progress. They have been provided with all situations of
exposure or shelter in one locality or another, to ensure the pro-
pagation of their species ; and all that the sensible farmer can
do to protect himself from the swarms which will continvially be
thrown ofF from the nurseries maintained through selfishness
or ignorance in this country, is to adopt the artifices which ^^^ill
enable him to escape the attacks of the depredators.

132. It has been suggested that the name 'Hessian Fly' should
be discontinued and the term ' wheat stem-fly, substituted for it.
The change, however, is decidedly objectionable, on the ground
that there exists in Europe an insect which has long borne the
name of the ' wheat stem-fly,' (chlorops pumilionis.)

CHAPTER IV.
The Wheat Midge (Cecidomyia trilici).

Origin of the Wheat Midge, 133. — Destructiveness in Vermont, &c., in 18S2, 134.—
The Wheat Midge an importation, 135.— Destructive in Scotland in 1740, 136. —
History of the progress of the Midge in Western Vermont, Ohio (?) Lower
Canada, New York, Maine, Michigan, Pensylvania. Western Canada, Saguenay,
L.C., from 1830, 1856, 137.— Description of the Midge, 145.— The clear winged
Wheat Midge, 146.— The Female, 146.— The Male, 146 (a).— The spotted-winged
AHieat Midge, 147, 148.— Habits of the Midge, 149.— Eggs deposited, 150.—
Young hatched, 152.— Figure of Maggot, 152.— A peculiarity in the 3Iaggot,
153.— Multitudes of these Maggots in ' screenings,' 154. — Differences in the
Habits of Individuals, 155. — Mr. Principal Dawson's experiments, 159.— Dr.
Fitch's observations, 157.— Mr. D. J. Browne's observations, 157.— Apparent
periodicity in the Habits of the Jlidge, 158.— Prevalent in particular years'
158.— Dr- Fitch's opinion, 159.— Influence of season on the Midge, 160.— Reme-
dial Measures, 161.— Smoking the Flies ; Sowing lime or ashes ; Early Sowing
of Winter Wheat , Late Sowing of Spring Wheat ; Fumigating with Sulphur ;
Fly-proof wheats, so called ; Turkish Flint Wheat ; Burning of Orpimeut ;
Fife Wheat, 161.— Sound practical suggestions, 162.— Suggestions of Mr. Hut-
ton, 163.— Change of seed, 163 (a).— Remedial Measures suggested by a study
of the Habits of the Midge, 163(b), 163(c), 163(d), 163(e), 163(f).— Its Patasites,
164.— European Parasites, 165.— Swallows, 166.— Yellow Birds, 167.

Origin of the Wheat Midge.

133. This destructive insect has long been known in Europe,
and during the latter half of the past century it attracted general
attention on account of the ravages it committed in various parts
of Great Britain. Simultaneous with its appearance in America
in the northern part of Vermont in 1828, it occasioned great
havoc in Scotland and England, creating universal alarm in many
of the best wheat growing districts of those countries.

134. In 1828 the ravages of the wheat midge in Northern
Vermont became so general as to cause serious apprehensions for
the wheat crop. In 1829 these fears were confirmed by the ap-
pearance of the fly in such countless numbers as to threaten the

76 PRIZE ESSAY :

entire destruction of the growing grain. Its spread was so rapid
and uniform in all directions where its favourite food was culti-
vated, that, in 1832, we find the wheat crops greatly injured or
altogether destroyed in Vermont, New Hampshire, part of New
York and Pennsylvania, and damaged over a large area in Lower
Canada,

135. Doubts have been expressed by European entomologists
as to the identity of the American wheat midge with the ceci-
domyia tritici, described by Mr. Kirby. In the spring of 1855,
however, Dr. Fitch sent some specimens of the American insect
to M. Amyot, a distinguished French entomologist. At the
meeting of the Entomological Society of France, November 14,
1855, M. Amyot announced the results of a most rigid examina-
tion, which he, in company with M. Lucas, had submitted the
specimens sent to him by Dr. Fitch. These entomologists find
the American insect perfectly identical with the European ceci-
domyia tritici, or wheat fly. This announcement leads to the
■conclusion that our wheat midge is an importation as is the Hes-
:sian fly ; and an examination into the habits of the insect exhi-
i)its no peculiarity which can militate against the adoption of this

■ conclusion.

136. In 1740 the wheat fly was destructive in Scotland, during
'the winter of which year the Thames was frozen over. In Ellis'
Modern Husbandman for 1745, the attacks of the vast num-
bers of black flies (the ichneumon parasites) are noticed in the
following quaint terms : " after this we had a melancholy sight,
for as soon as the wheat had done blooming, vast numbers of
black flies attacked the wheat ears, and blowed a little yellow
maggot which ate up some of the kernels, in others part of them,
and which caused multitudes of ears to miss of their fulness,
acting in some measure like a sort of locust, till rain fell and
washed them oflF; and though this evil has happened in other

THE WHEAT MIDGE. ^^

summers to the wheat in some degree, and not done much harm,
yet if the good providence of God had not hindered it, they
might have ruined all the crops of wheat in the nation."

History of its Progress.

137. The following records of the appearance of this destruc-
tive insect will furnish a tolerable idea of the extent of its ravages
on the American continent : —

1820.
Wheat midge first appeared in "Western Vermont.(i)

1827.
Occasioned local injury in Athens County, Ohio(?)(2)

1828.
Committed extensive depredations in Northern Vermont, and
the frontiers of Lower Canada.

1829.
Greatly destructive in Vermont and parts of Lower Canada

and New Hampshire.

1830.

Appeared in North-eastern New York.

1831.
Considerable injury in Eastern New York.

1832.

Very destructive in Eastern New York ; cultivation of wheat

abandoned.

1834.

Commenced its depredations in the State of Maine. First
appeared in numbers in Lower Canada, near Montreal.

1835.

" 7th or 8th July, 1835, I discovered the fly on my wheat in
myriads. They disappeared on the 11th or 12th July. They

(1) Mr. Jewett— New England Farmer;

(2) Statement of Mr. Elner Eowell, page 252. Pat. Off. Rep., 1852r3.

78 PRIZE ESSAY :

appeared to be depositing their eggs in the glumes of the ear in
the 7th or 8th July. Six or eight days subsequently live mag-
gots were produced. The earliest wheat was all destroyed. A
part of my wheat that was not fully in ear when the fly appeared,
was not so much injured. The tops of the ear had the maggots,
but the lower part that was not shot out was uninjured" (Evans).
Considerable injury from the wheat midge on the Island of

Montreal.

1836.

Fly seen June 29th, and commenced depositing eggs in Lower
Canada on the 4th July. Wheat on the Island of Montreal
greatly damaged. The fly extended its ravages west and north-
ward of Montreal for many miles.

1842.
Appeared in Western New York.

1845.
Very destructive in Western New York.

1846.
Approaching Seneca County, New York.

1847.
Destructive in Townships north of Seneca County, New York-

1848.
Appeared in Seneca County, New York.

1849.
Committed ravages in the county of Lennox, Upper Canada.
Prevalent in Addington, Hastings and Frontenac. Disappeared
from Monroe County, New York. Destructive in Seneca Coun-
ty, New York.

1850.

Wheat midge greatly increased in the County of Hastings,
Upper Canada. Also in Prince Edwards and adjacent counties.

THE WHEAT MIDGE. 79

The following notice of its progress contains some facts and ob-
servations both interesting and valuable :

" To account for this (the low average of the crop) it must be
observed that the weevil (wheat midge) has been very destruct-
ive, having been two years in the county, and in its journey west-
ward has reached about the centre of our western tier of town-
ships ; some few instances have occurred of itshaving been found
beyond that limit. We cannot but expect that next year it will
be still more destructive ; one fact, however, is well established,
that in early situations, on early spots, where the seed was sowed
early, there was little or no weevil (wheat midge.) In low, damp,
late situations, and where late sown, it has been extremely de-
structive, especially in the eastern part of the country, where it
first appeared. This important fact ought to be well remem-
bered by our neighbours to the west of us, where they will have
it undoubtedly in a very short time, and exertions ought to be
used by them to sow early, and early kinds of seed, to drain the
land well, and make small ridges, and otherwise expedite the
growth as much as possible. The early sowed sole wheat es-
caped last year, in many instances, in the very centre of the
weevil's destructive ravages. The maggot is generated from a
fly blow deposited in the blossom by a very small greyish fly,
with a small stripe of orange down the back, and it is most busy
when the wheat is in full blossom, about the first of July.(i^

138. In the Canadian Census Report for 1851, we find the
following remarks on the progress and destructiveness of the
wheat midge in certain counties of Upper Canada during this
and the following year. They are from the pen of the able
Secretary of the Board of Registration and Statistics, William
Hutton, Esq., whose experience, position and practical know-
lege, confer the highest value upon his views and statements :
(1) Prize Report, county of Hastings, 1852. W. Hutton, Esq.

80 PRIZE ESSAY :

" With perhaps equal advantages we find an enormous discre-
pancy in some of our own wheat-growing districts. In the year
1850, the township of Esquesing, in the county of Halton, pro-
duced 26 bushels of wheat to the acre, and that of Adolphus-
town, in the county of Lennox, only six bushels to the acre, and
this with soil and climate perhaps equally good. This is at once
accounted for by the ravages of that fearful plague to the far-
mer — the weevil. The worst wheat crops in Canada "West, in the
year 1851, were in those counties where the weevil was prevalent.
It committed the most serious depredations, in very many cases
having rendered whole fields of most promising wheat not worth
the threshing. This fly, which deposits its larvse in the blossom
of the wheat in order to feed upon the milk of the grain as it
ripens, was, unfortunately, in that year most abundant in the
counties of Frontenac, Lennox, Addington, Hastings, and Prince
Edward, and is travelling gradually west at the rate of about nine
miles every svxmmer, and remains from five to seven years in a
locality. The only prevention yet discovered has been to sow
early seed on early land, and very early in the autumn, so that
the wheat may blossom before its enemy takes wing, the period
for which depends much upon the earliness of the season. So
destructive was the fly in 1851, that the fine agricultural county
of Lennox produced only six bushels per acre, Hastings about
ten, and Prince Edward, Addington and Frontenac, about eleven.
It had not in that year reached the county of Northumberland,
but was very destructive in that county the following year, 1852."

Contrary to expectation, did not commit ravages in Seneca
County, New York.

1851.

Very destructive in Frontenac, Lennox, Addington, Hastings,
and Prince Edward Counties, Upper Canada. Destructive in the
great wheat district west of Cayuga, New York.

THE WHEAT MIDGE. 81

1852.

Committed excessive ravages in late vpheat in the county of
Hastings. Destructive in Northumberland; travelling westward.
The subjoined notice is by the author of the preceding quotation :

140. "They are numerous in this county in late wheat — very
numerous in later, and very, very numerous in the latest. I
should say that very probably one-half (certainly one-third) of
the whole wheat of this county is destroyed by this weevil. I
saw the fly about the first of this month, (July, 1852,) almost
forming a little cloud, proceeding westward. It vdll be in Mur-
ray and Sydenham this season, and will proceed westward from
seven to nine miles each year. The only remedy I can perceive,
as yet, is very early sowing on very early ground, well drained, of
very early kinds of grain. I have four fields of wheat ; in the
earliest there is little or none, except where there was after-
growth, but it becomes worse in each field in proportion to its
lateness, either in whole or in spots. Perhaps, through your
valuable journal, you will be able to hurry the farmers west of
us in their preparations for wheat sowing, and thus do a world
of good, as the progress of the weevil is as certain as the pro-
gress of time itself, and how great a scourge it is — few of our
brother farmers in the West are aware. The Sole and Hutche-
son wheat appear lo be the earliest, and will be ready for har-
vest with me, and around me, on the 22nd of July, which is early
for this season. I cannot say exactly why the earliest wheat is
the safest, but I dare say nature provides that the fly comes to its
natural strength at the usual time for wheat to blossom ; and if
the wheat be earlier than usual, the grain is too forward to
nourish its deposit. This year the coldness of the season re-
tarded the animal creation probably more than it did the vege-
table creation, and this may be another reason why the fly was
too late for early sown wheats." ******

82

PRIZE ESSAY

Weevil (wheat midge) common and destructive in Vermont.
Not generally prevalent in New York. " The weevil has done
us no injury yet in Genesee County, New York." Destructive
in Westmoreland, Pennsylvania.

1853.(1)

141. "The weevil has made its appearance in some localities
in this part of our State, but not in sufficient numbers to injure
our crop." — J. D. Verres, Wayne County, Michigan.

" The midge or weevil has done a great deal of damage to our
white wheat." " The Hessian fly has not for many years done
us any injury." — G. Wiborn, Ontario County, New York.

" The wheat crop was less with us than an average last sea-
son, in consequence of injury by the weevil." — James De Mott,
Seneca County, New York.

Midge appeared in moderate abundance in Northumberland
and Durham, Canada West.

In Mr. Principal Dawson's " Scientific Contributions," we
find the subjoined general notice of the wheat midge in Nova
Scotia : " The wheat midge has in recent times been the most
destructive of all wheat blight." Hence we may consider it es-
tablished in Nova Scotia.

1854.

142. Maine. — Wheat midge destructive. . " Wheat has been
almost entirely neglected for some years past on account of the
weevil ; but it is again assuming a place in the fields of our far-
mers with fair success." (2)

Western New York. — Committed dreadful ravages. Estimat-
ed loss in the State exceeding nine million dollars.
Pennsylvania. — Destructive.
Northern Ohio. — Destructive.

(1) See Patent Office Reports.

(2) E. Weston, Somerset County, Maine. P. O. R.

THE WHEAT MIDGE. 83

Very general and destructive throughout the northern wheat
growing districts of the United States. In 1854, at the August
meeting of the American Institute, in New York, Mr. Solon Ro-
binson stated that the red weevil (wheat midge) is the most ter-
rible pest ever encountered by wheat growers. Destructive in
Grand Bay, Saguenay, L. C.

143. "In almost every section of the State of New York,
where the wheat crop is grown, the ravages of the wheat midge
have been most extensive, especially with the white wheat. The
Mediterranean wheat, when early sown, has generally escaped.
Assuming that the loss was one-third from this cause — although
it was probably considerably greater — it is represented in money
value (at i^2. 15 per bushel, the average price,) by <S'9,403,012,85.
(Abstract from N. Y. S. A. S., 1854. Seg. Agr. Meeting.")

" The pecuniary loss which our country has sustained from
this insect, is incalculable ; but it is truly appalling, nay terrific.
Some writers have thought that a wet season favored the increase
of the midge, but in this country it has never been more de-
structive than it was in the summer of 1854, noted as one of the
driest seasons known. In gathering the agricultural statistics of
that year, our State Agricultural Society inserted in its circular
the query : ' To what extent was the wheat crop in your vicinity
injured by the midge V And the answer to this inquiry furnish-
es us with quite authentic information upon this topic. The able
and efficient Secretary of the Society, Hon. B. P. Johnson, in-
formed me, that on getting together all the replies to this in-
quiry, and placing everything at the lowest figure, so as to be
certain the estimate was within truth, the wheat which this in-
sect had that year destroyed in our State, at its then current
market price, exceeded in value fifteen millions of dollars !
This amount would be more than a third larger, if estimated at
the price to which wheat afterwards arose last winter. Truly, it

84 PRIZE ESSAY :

is a formidable enemy, that has the power to take such an
amount of money from the pockets of our citizens in a single
year."(i)

As every fact connected with the midge is of importance, the
following caution from the "Genesee Farmer" is appended :

" Weevil. — Caution to Farmers. — The Hon. E. Blackman, of
Newark, N. Y., exhibited to the writer samples of Timothy seed
obtained by him at Buffalo, which was literally alive with weevils.
The seed was understood to be from Ohio ; and most of the seed
from many parts of that State, having been obtained from grass
in the wheat crop, the weevil falls into their timothy seed and
thus is sown broadcast over the land. As the insect lives through
winter, or in some other way appears in the same locality every
season, it may be possible that the sowing of this seed containing
them may hasten the general prevalence of that dread scourge
throughout the entire wheat-growing section of our State.
Ought not farmers to be on their guard against thus distributing
destruction to their crops of wheat ?"

1855.

Very destructive in the counties of Northumberland and Dur-
ham, C. W.

In Lower Canada, wheat badly damaged by fly in Grand Bay,
Saguenay.

Not generally prevalent in the United States. This is one of
the peculiarities of insect life before referred to, in paragraphs
24, 159. Being most abundant and destructive generally in
1854, and in certain localities absolutely ruinous, the succeeding
year finds it dwindling away into an insignificant and almost for-
gotten pest ; yet numberless examples show how little the causes
which govern its increase are understood, and how immensely

(1) Asa Fitch, M. D., " Rural New Yorker," 1856.

THE WHEAT MIDGE. 85

deserving they are of most careful study over the wide areas on
this continent where wheat is cultivated.

1856.

144. Wheat fly common on the lake shore counties west of
Toronto. Committed excessive ravages in the counties bordering
on the Niagara River. Estimated loss in Canada from the wheat
fly in 1856 probably exceeds 5^2,500,000. Made its first appear-
ance in the county of Middlesex, C. W, General but not de-
structive along the Detroit River. County of Wellington affect-
ed. Common in the county of Peterborough. Common in
parts of Maine. Destructive in County of Saguenay, L. C. In
the township of Thorah, C. W., hitherto considered altogether
free from all insect wheat pest, except "grasshoppers ;" in some
instances the top kernels of wheat were found partially attacked
by a "small light brown worm, with a black head," thought to
be the "weevil." The intervention of a thunder shower pre-
served the infested ears. AVhether this insect be the larvae of
the midge, is quite uncertain, and a notice of it is introduced to
show that even so far north and east, as the Townships of
Saguenay and Thorah, the midge, or another wheat depredator,
is attracting attention, and perhaps silently establishing a home.

Description of the Wheat Midge.

145. A small orange-colored fly, (or flies, as there are several
species,) with delicate, transparent, irridescent wings, and long
slender legs. The length of this insect is about the tenth of an
inch, rather less than more ; the breadth of its expanded wings
slightly exceeds the tenth of an inch. A good magnifying glass
is required in order to distinguish the following particulars.

The Clear-Winged Wheat Midge.

146. The eyes of the female (Fig. I) clear-winged wheat

86 PRIZE essay:

midge (Cecidoinyia Tritici) occupy two-thirds of the entire
head.(i)

WHEAT MIDGE. J I ^ / ^V^^ '

(Nat. Size.) ^y^ \ i / ^^^ (fig. A.)

Part of a Female
Antenna,

\

FIG. I. — MAGNIFIED CLEAE-WINGED WIIEAT MIDGE.— (Cecidowjya trUici.)

They are large, of a deep black colour, and are separated from
each other on the top of the head only by a light and almost im-
perceptible cleft, so that when viewed in front they appear like a
continuous broad black band surrounding the head. The face is
pale yellow. The antennse are of a deep brown or black colour,
less intense than the eyes, of the same length as the body and
composed of twelve joints. Each joint (Fig. h) is commonly
oblong, with a contraction in its middle, and is surrounded with
a row of hairs near its base, and another near its apex. The
joints of the antennse are connected by a slender thread. The
thorax is of a pale yellow colour ; the abdomen throughout of
an orange colour ; the wings are colourless, appearing like thin
plates of mica. Their margins are densely ciliated with hairs.
The legs are pale yellow ; the basal joint of the tarsi is the
shortest of all, its length Uttle exceeding its diameter. All parts
of the body are clothed with minute hairs.

(] ) For a full and complete technical description of the AVheat Fly, or Midge,
see Dr. Fitch's Report, in Vol. V. Trans. T^. Y. S. A. S., 1845. Many scientific terms
are omitted in the text, for obvious reasons.

THE WHEAT MIDGE.

87

146 (a). The male wheat midge is a rare insect, and diflFers
from the female in one particular point by which it may be easily
distinguished (Fig. IV.) The antennae are double the length of
the body, and twenty-four jointed. The joints are of an exact
globular form, and encircled with a row of hairs. (Fig. e.)

(FIG. e.)
Part of a male antenna.

Foot of TFIieat Midge,
highly magnified.

FIG. IT.— HALE OF THE CLEAK-WINGED WHEAT MIDGE— MAGNIFIED.

The Spotted "Winged Wheat Midge.

(Cecidomyia arealis. Fitch.)

147. The spotted winged wheat midge is distinguished from
the preceding insect by having spotted wings ; six spots are com-
monly found on each wing. The length of this insect is about
one-twentieth of an inch, while that of the common clear-winged
wheat midge is about one line, or the twelfth part of an inch,
although much smaller specimens are not unfrequently met with.

148. In the Rural New Yorker, for June, 1856, Dr. Fitch
says, in an admirable communication on the wheat midge : —

" The fact then is, there are two species of this insect devas-
tating our wheat. But as these species are alike, so far as we
yet know, in their habits, transformation and external appear-

88

PRIZE essay:

Magnified wing
<ifC. cerealis.

8POTTED-W1KGED WHEAT MIDGE— MAGNIFIED.

(C. cereales. Fitch.)

Wheat Midge at
rest, with its
wings in their
natural jpoti-
tion.-^magnified.

ance, and can only be distinguished from each other by their
wings when in their perfect state, it will be more convenient to
designate them collectively as the wheat-midge, and only in
cases where technical accuracy and precision is required, is it
worth while to discriminate them by the names " spotted winged
wheat midge," (C. cerealis,) and " clear winged wheat midge,"
(C. Tritici.)

Habits of the Wheat Midge.

149. In Canada the wheat midge appears during the latter
part of June, and remains until the middle of August. (^) It
prefers low and sheltered places, being always found in greater
abundance in vallies than on hills, imder the lea of fences, or the
forest rather than the open field. It is most active at sunset,
and during the day may be found lurking among the lower leaves
of the plant, and especially among the weeds which are frequently
suffered to grow in profusion among our crops. At twilight and
during the night it is chiefly occupied in depositing its eggs. It
does not confine its attacks to wheat but infests the ears of various

(1) The precise lime varying by a few days with flowering of wheat.

THE WHEAT MIDGE. 89

kinds of grass, such as the couch grass, (Triticum repens), the
wild hearded oats, (Avena Festuca,) and other grasses.

150. The eggs are deposited in the germ of the still undevel-
oped grain, through its chaff or sheath. (D "When the chaff is far
advanced, or very silicious in its nature, the insect cannot punc-
ture it, a fact which is important to hear in mind, and of value
as a guide in the selection of varieties of wheat for seed where
the fly abounds. The number of eggs deposited in one floret
rarely exceeds 10, but it often happens that several insects lay
their eggs in the same floret, hence from 10 to 40 larvse have
been counted in the same floret.

151. "Go into an infested wheat-field in the evening, with a
lantern, and you will find a swarm of these flies, everywhere
dancing up and down along the heads of the wheat, intently en-
gaged in selecting the kernels, upon which to deposit their eggs.
Tliey are all females. The males are very rare, and have never
been found, I believe, except by the German naturalist, Meigen,
and myself. Having discovered a kernel, the chaff of which is
not too old and hard, the fly alights upon it and pierces the chaff
with her sting or ovipositor, which is a slender tube resembling
a fine hair. This she protrudes from her body, insinuating it
through the chaff until its point reaches the germ or young soft
kernel. She then leisurely passes her eggs one after another
through this tube, thus dropping them upon the surface of the
germ or embryo seed. The same fly probably visits several ker-
nels in this manner upon successive evenings, until her whole
stock of eggs is disposed of, by which time she, having com-
pleted her labors, has become so exhausted that she is often
unable to draw her ovipositor from the chaff, and thus dies.

(1) It has been said that the eggs are deposited on the chaff scales. Perhaps both
locaUties are selected under different circumstances. As the maggot is footless it
would find the greatest difiBculty, except when the chaff scales were moist, in enter*
ing inwards to the young grain or germ.

G

90 PRIZE ESSAY :

These dead flies may frequently be found thus suspended by their
tail -like ovipositors, to the outer scale of the chaff." (D

152. About a week suffices to hatch the young maggots, and
three weeks enables them to attain maturity. They feed upon
the juices of the grain, and, as it were, dry it up. "When full
grown the maggots wriggle in damp weather, or when the stalk
is wet with dew or rain, down to the ground, and penetrate about
half an inch or an inch below the surface. Here they remain
until the following spring, still retaining their maggot state. In
the month of May they assume the pupa condition, and preserve
it for two or three weeks, when they wriggle themselves to the
surface of the ground, break their pupa skin, and assume the
form of the midge.

Kernel of Wheat, the chaff pulled down A mature Maggot— highly magnified,

to show the Maggots in their usual
situation.]

153. It frequently happens that the maggots are gathered
with the grain and carried into the barn, but instead of remain-
ing soft and pliant, they become stiff and inactive, and their
bodies losing a portion of their moisture by evaporation, con-
tract and separate from the thin outer skin, which forms a case
in which the little yellow worm is enclosed. It thus reposes in
the wheat heads until the grain is threshed and winnowed, when
most of these larvae are collected with other screenings, and often
emptied out among the litter of the barn-yard. Here their
bodies imbibe moisture, and swell until they fill the case or skins
in which they are enclosed, and the worms crawl or wriggle away

(1) Asa ritch, M.D. Rural New Torker, 1856.

THE WHEAT MIDGE. 91

to a place of security. (Asa Fitch — Rural New Yorker, Jan-
uary, 1856.)

154. We may form some conception of the innumerable mul-
titudes of these insects which accumulate among the screenings
of infested wheat by attempting to estimate the number which are
annually swept out of barns in those districts where they abound.
Mr. Dawson relates in his * contributions towards the improve-
ment of Agriculture,' that a friend informed him that not less
than four bushels of larvae had been obtained from the wheat of
eight acres. After making a large deduction for dust this quan-
tity must have contained about 150 millions of these insects.

155. It thus appears that these differences in the habits of
individuals hatched and so far matured in the same field are de-
pendent upon atmospherical conditions. Some of the full grown
maggots leave the grain at the close of a shower, or heavy dew,
and wriggle down the wet straw to the earth. Others which are
later in arriving at maturity, or in finding suitable weather for
making their descent to the earth, are carried during harvest
with the grain into the barn, and become subject to the singular
condition or state described in paragraph 153.

156. Some very excellent observations on the habits of this
insect have been made by Mr. Principal Dawson, of McGill Col-
lege, Montreal, of which a record may be found in a work by
that gentleman before noticed, entitled, " Scientific contributions
towards the improvement of Agriculture in Nova Scotia." The
following are the observations referred to : —

" I procured a quantity of the larvae, full grown and in that
motionless and torpid state in which they usually appear when
the grain is ripe. A portion of these larvae were placed on the
surface of moist soil in a flower pot. In the course of two days,
the greater number of them had descended into the ground, pre-
viously casting their skins which remained at the surface (p. 157.)

92

PRIZE essay;

I afterwards ascertained that they had penetrated to the depth
of more than an inch, and were of a whitish colour, softer and
more active than they had previously heen. The fact is thus
established, that these apparently torpid larvae, when they fall
from the ripe wheat in autumn, or are carelessly swept out from
the threshing floor into the barn yard, at once resume their ac-
tivity, and bury themselves in the ground.

" The larvae thus buried in the ground, were allowed to remain
undisturbed during winter and spring, the flower-pot being occa-
sionally watered. About the end of June they began to reap-
pear above the surface, in the winged form ; the little grubs
creeping to the surface, and projecting about half their bodies
above it, when the skin of the upper part burst and the full grown
winged midge came forth and flew off. This completes the round
of changes which each generation of these little creatures under-
goes, and we have thus actual evidence of each stage of its pro-
gress from the egg to the perfect insect."

157. Dr. Fitch's observations do not agree in one particular
with those of Mr. Dawson. The following extract from the
paper published in the Rural New Yorker, before referred to,
explains Dr. Fitch's views : —

" The insect does not moult or cast off its skin from the time
it leaves the egg until it enters its pupa state, nor do I think the
larva skin forms a case or envelope vrithin which the pupa lies,
but that the skin of the larva gradually changes and becomes
the skin of the pupa, as it certainly does in our willow gall-fly
(Cecidomyia Salicis. — Fitch. ^ I infer this from the fact that
in those instances in which I have reared these flies from the
larvae, the empty pupa skins were the only ones which I found
remaining." * * v * * * *

" Gather a number of the worms from the wheat at the time
of harvest and place them in a pill box. They all soon cease

THE WHEAT MIDGE. 93

crawling about, and ere many days become cased larvae — the yel-
low worms being shorter than the semi-transparent pod in which
they are inclosed. They may now be kept for months, even in a
dry, stove-warmed office, without losing their vitality. Then,
upon placing them between the folds of a wet cloth, they will
next day be found actively crawling about within the cloth, till
reaching its outside they with a skip throw themselves away from
it, not one of them leaving a carse or empty skin behind in the
cloth."

Mr. D. J. Browne, in the Patent Office Report for 1854, page
74, says, "towards the last of July or beginning of August, the full
grown maggots cease eating, and become sluggish and torpid,
preparatory to shedding their skins, which takes place in the
following manner : — The body of the maggot gradually shrinks
in length within its skin, and becomes more flattened and less
pointed, as readily may be seen through its delicate transparency.
This torpid state lasts only a few days, after which the insect
casts its skin, leaving the latter entire, excepting a little rent at
one end of it. These empty cases or skins may be found in great
abundance in the wheat ears after the moulting process is com-
pleted."

Apparent Periodicity in the visits of the Wheat
Midge.

158. A singular apparent regularity in the periods of its re-
currence in vast numbers so as to prove eminently destructive,
has been hinted at by Dr. Fitch in 1 844.(1) When these instances
of periodicity are associated with its late destructive depredations
in the United States and Canada, they seem to acquire a peculiar
although perhaps speculative interest. Its appearances at differ-
ent periods are as follows : —

(1) See succeeding paragraph.

94 PRIZE ESSAY :

1st. Very prevalent in Scotland in 1740.(i>

2nd. Abundant a few years previous to 1771, or about 25 years
after its first appearance, and in that year (1771) eminently de-
structive. (2)

3rd. After 25 years or in 1796, it was again observed by
Messrs. Kirby and others, in abundance in different districts for
three or four years.

4th. After about 25 years more, or in 1825 to 30, it once again
became destructive and appears in America as well as in Europe.

5th. After a fifth epoch of about 25 years it occasioned iu
New York State damage to the extent of ^15,000,000 to the
wheat crops in 1854, and in Canada West exceeding ^2,000,000
in 1856. The season of 1854 was one of unexampled drought
in the State of New York.

159. In a letter from Dr. Fitch to the writer, (before referred
to) the following reference to this curious subject is made : —

Though I allude to a seeming regularity in the recurrence of
the wheat midge in England, after long intervals, I have no idea
there really is any such regularity in the return of this or any
other insect. We thought the midge had rma its race in this
section of country, some years ago, and that the general cultiva-
tion of wheat might be resumed. But in 1854 it suddenly re-
appeared, as numerous as it had ever before been ; indicating that
it has become a naturalized insect in our midst, ready to multiply
whenever those circumstances which favor its increase recur.
And all OA'^er the western country, this and other wheat insects
are introducing themselves, to remain there no doubt, as long as
wheat is cultivated there, ever and anon multiplying and devas-
tating the crops for one or more years, and then diminishing and
Ira time ceasing to attract notice.

:C)0. There can be no doubt that certain peculiarities in the

t I 2\W Modern Husbaudry. (2) Mr. Gullet.

THE WHEAT MIDGE. 95

season have a marked effect upon the increase of the wheat midge.
The year, perhaps, of its greatest ravages, on this continent, 1854,
was one of unparalleled drought, and it has been observed that
numerous species of insects appear in incredible numbers during
dry and hot summers. d) The palmer worm which committed
such ravages in the orchards during the summer of 1853, was
preceded by remarkably dry and hot weather. The chinch bug
in 1839 became excessively numerous in Virginia and the Caro-
linas, and was preceded by a very dry spring. In 1850 this in-
sect was abundant in Illinois, but during the two following years
it was little noticed, " but the three dry summers which have
now occurred have increased it prodigiously." (2) Numerous other
examples might be quoted to show that hot and dry weather
favours in a remarkable degree the excessive multiplication of
insects. The green plant louse was excessively common in gar-
dens near Toronto in 1856, during the dry early summer months
(129.)

On the Remedial Measures which have been adopted

and suggested with a view to lessen the

Ravages of the Wheat Midge.

161, The remarks under this heading made in the chapter on
the Hessian fly may be here repeated ; we can employ remedial
measures to check the destructive increase and devastations of
this insect, but we cannot provide a remedy against its general
appearance from time to time, under favourable conditions.

The following plans have been adopted in the United States,
and also recommended frequently in Canada. The general re-
sult is, as before, attached in a few brief words : —

1 . Smoking the flies lohen in the act of depositing their eggs

(1) Por various instances of the concurrence of hot and dry weather with the
sudden appearance of insects of different kinds, see Dr. Fitch's Reports.

(2) Ibid.

96 PRIZE ESSAY :

— Not generally practicable, and too mucli dependent upon wind
to be of much utility.

2. Sowing with lime, or ashes, or gypsum when tbe flies are
in the act of depositing their eggs. Experience and observation
have shown this artifice to be without any effect. Instances have
often been cited when it has proved of value, in Ohio, Vermont,
Canada. The true reasonmust have escaped observation. Wheat
in blossom strewed with lime will not deter the insect from de-
positing their eggs, as observation has most distinctly shown.

3. Early sowing. — In the absence of the Hessian fly this arti-
fice is no doubt valuable with regard to winter wheat.

4th. Late sowing of spring wheat — of value where rust is not
likely to prove equally destructive as the midge. "With good
varieties of wheat this remedy is probably the best that can be
suggested. Mauy instances are recorded of the very successful
employment of this simple artifice. In the Canadian Agricul-
turist for September, 1856, the late Mr, John Wade, of Hamil-
ton Gardens, county Northumberland, describes a kind of wheat
adapted to late spring sowing, which appears to possess the re-
quired qualities.

" The Fife is now as good after being grown 7 years as it was
at first, without the least sign or vestige of failure in any shape
except from weevil ; and to know that you can be sure of a
crop of wheat sown as late as the 10th of June, and to fill and
ripen without a speck of rust, and yield 20 to 30 bushels an acre,
is surely a consideration."

5th. Fumigating ivith sulphur. — Is not the remedy, when
practicable, as bad as the disease ? Sulphurous acid — the result
of burning sulphur in air, is a most deadly vegetable poison.

6th. Fly-proof wheat (so called). See paragraphs 108-112.
The Black Sea wheat has long been a favourite in Canada, it is
now fast deteriorating in some of the qualities which commend-

THE "WHEAT MIDGE. 97

ed It some years since ; it has become acclimated. Fresh seed
would no doubt be in full possession of its most valued pro-
perties.

The Turkish Flint Wheat, from near Mount Olympus, in
Asia, is a hardy fall variety, and has recently been introduced
into the United States through the Patent Office. It has a dark
coloured chaff, a very heavy beard, and a long, flinty, white-color-
ed berry, and is thought by the Commissioner of Patents likely
to prove highly profitable to the farmer and miller, from its su-
perior weight and the excellence of the flour it produces. It has
withstood the severity of an American winter in the middle
States, and " from its long thick beard vdll probably be protect-
ed in a measure from the depredations of insects in the field as
well as from heating or moulding in the stalk." P. O. R. 1855.

7th. Burning of Orpimenf. — This is a most dangerous recom-
mendation. If it were attempted on a large scale, sufficient to
be of practical utility, the destruction of many flies would be
very probable, but the poisoning of a manipulator now and then
would be absolutely certain. This suggestion has been copied
from a " Canada Journal," into the Patent Office Report for
1847.

162. Sound and practical advice on this subject is given to a
correspondent whose wheat was beginning to suffer from the
' "Weevil ' in the county of Middlesex, by the editor of the
Canadian Agriculturist, in the Sept. number, (1856) of that
Journal. The extract is subjoined.

1st. Prepare your land well. 2nd. Sow early (winter wheat) ;
— ^for this neighbourhood, we should say not later than the
second week of September, (of course the absence of the Hes-
sian fly is here supposed.) 3rd. Select early and hardy vari-
eties of wheat, such as the Improved White-Flint ; Kentucky
White-bearded, or as it is commonly called, Hutchinson's ; — Blve

98 PRIZE ESSAY :

stein ; Soule's, and Humes White Wheat. There may be other
kinds equally valuable, but the above are the earliest, hardiest,
most prolific, and produce the best flour of any with which
we are acquainted. Ploughing wheat stubble in the fall has
been recommended, with much show of reason in its favour,
but it is evident that the practice must become general before
much good can be expected from it. One large field left un-
ploughed would furnish flies enough in the spring to spread the
mischief over the whole neighborhood, or settlement. (?) (?)(i)

There is no variety of wheat entirely exempt from the attacks
of insects. The Mediterranean is said to be less liable to their
attacks than any other, but it is a coarse, red-bearded wheat, and
makes inferior flour. It is an early kind, but the grain is as
dark as the rye, and seldom plump. It is not grown in Upper
Canada to any great extent.

163. It will be well here to draw attention once more to the
suggestions of Mr, Hutton, although given at length in para-
graph 137-

" One fact is well established, thatinear/y(8) situations, on early
spots, where the seed was sown early there was no Weevil, (wheat
midge.) In low, damp, late situations, and wherelatesown it has
been extremely destructive. This important fact ought to be
well remembered by our neighbours west of us, where they will
have it undoubtedly in a very short time, and exertions ought to
be used by them to sow early, and earl}^ kinds of seeds, to drain
the land well and make small ridges, and otherwise expedite
the growth as much as possible. The early sowed Sovde wheat
escaped last year in many instances, in the very centre of the
Weevil's destructive ravages." Prize Report, county of Has-
tings, by W. Hutton, Esq., 18.52.

(1) The notos of interrogation are the author's — it is very improbable that one large
field would spread the mischief if the other artifices above noticed were adopted.

(2) In the absence of the Hessian Fly.

THE -WrHEAT MIDGE. 99

163(a). With reference to change of seed of the same variety
it should be borne in mind that it is advisable to obtain the fresh
seed from a soil and climate better and earlier than those of the
locality in which it is sown. In America, where our winters are
so prolonged that vegetation in the summer months progresses
as in a hothouse, it seems very probable that seed obtained from
the north would ripen earlier for a year or two in southern dis-
tricts, than acclimated varieties. (2)

163(b). The remedial measure which appears to be immediate-
ly suggested by a study of the habits of the wheat midge, is of
the simplest description, and everywhere practicable. It will be
seen from paragraphs 152, and 156, that the maggot of the
midge, previous to assuming its larvae condition, buries itself an
inch or a little more below the surface of the ground. That
when the time arrives for their assuming the fly state, they wrig-
gle themselves to the surface for that purpose. It is only by a
series of alternate contractions and expansions of one side and
the other that they can make their way up from an inch below
the surface to the light and air, for they possess no feet or other
exposed members when in the pupa case. If, therefore, the
pupa be buried, say six inches below the surface, it is permanent-
ly imprisoned, for nature has not provided any apparatus to ena-
ble it to effect its escape under such circumstances. If, there-
fore, at any time between August and May of the following year
the ground be ploughed to a depth of at least 6 inches, and in
such a way that the furrow slices lie as compactly as possible,
there can be no doubt that a vast majority of the pupse will per-
ish from inability to escape from their imprisonment.

163(c). But how much greater will be the probability of every
individual pupa perishing if the ground be ploughed seven inches
deep immediately after harvest, and left untouched until the fol-

(2) See paragraph, or rather note to paragraph 120, page 86.

100 PRIZE essay:

lowing August ? Every one knows that it is not possible, in
ploughing, to turn a sod or furrow slice completely over, so that
all parts shall be altogether reversed. The furrow slices may be
made to lie with great compactness, but there will be instertitial
spaces into which the pupa may fall or wriggle themselves, and
eventually escape. When the field is ploughed immediately
after harvest, not only will the autumnal rains fill the spaces be-
neath and between the furrow slices by washing down fine parti-
cles of earth, but the influence of the many months of winter
and spring will consolidate the furrow slices, and their compact-
ness may be ensured by rolling in May or the early part of
June, before the fly appears.

163(d). Kolling the land immediately after ploughing is ac-
complished, will give further security to the prison in which the
pupa are enclosed by this simple artifice.

lG3(e). "We may now consider the feasibility and adaptation
of this artifice of after harvest ploughing and rolling, to those
sections of Canada where the fly has not yet appeared. The
country about Lake Simcoe has not yet apparently suffered from
the depredations of this insect, and we know that the districts
between London and the Detroit River are now only threatened
at their borders with the invasion of the wheat midge. The
question proposed is, what ought the farmers of these favored
districts to do in order to avoid the slow but sure progress of
the devastator.

163(f). Every one will say, first banish the idea from your
minds that you are safe from an invasion ; let the experience of
half a continent foreshadow the contingencies of a few town-
ships. Acknowledging, then, the necessity of preparing for the
invasion, what is to be done ? The answer depends upon the
presence or absence of another insect. 1st. Are you liable to
the attacks of the Hessian fly? No; then sow early, &c., &c.

THE WHEAT MIDGE. 101

(See Art. 162.) Yes; then sow late ; prepare your seed with
steeps, choose earliest varieties, and have your land in good
order. "Watch the progress of the midge, but do not depend
upon that ; plough as soon after harvest as possible, and let
that field remain untouched, except by the roller, until after har-
vest the succeeding year. Whatever invaders may have appeared
unobserved, (and millions will have so done, sooner or later,) will
be buried beyond their powers of restoring themselves to light
and air.

Its Parasites. " — ~-~

164. These are not well known in this country. Several have
been recognized in Europe, and described by distinguished ento-
mologists. One American species, found by Dr. Fitch, is a
hymenopter of the family Chalcididse. It is probable that the
wheat midge, like the Hessian fly, has several parasites, which
increase vrith it until they finally overcome it, and for a time ar-
rest the destructive ravages of this terrible devastator.
, 165. In Europe, nature herself has provided a considerable
check to the multiplication of these flies, by making them the
prey of no fewer than three kinds of ichneumons, viz : Encyrtus
inserens, about half the length of the wheat fly ; another, Pla-
tigaster tipulce, which commits its eggs to the larvae of the
wheat fly ; and the third, Eurytoma penetrans. Some of these
ichneumons appear in great numbers where the fly abounds, and
multitudes must become their victims. — Quarterly Journal of
Agriculture, vol. 12.

A very full description of these ichneumons, taken from Mr.
Curtis' celebrated works and papers, is given in the February
(1857) number of the "Canadian Naturalist and Geologist," by
E. Billings, Montreal.

166. Many birds prey upon the maggots. Mr. Elmer Rowell,

102 PRIZE essay:

of Athens County, Ohio, has a colony of swallows amounting to
one hundred individuals, which he thinks secure him from the
ravages of the midge. It is probable, however, that the most
destructive to the midge maggot among the feathered tribes is
the beautiful little yellow bird. (Fringilla Tristis — Lin.)

167. In Madison County, New York, during the prevalence
of the wheat midge, in the years 1838 and '52, flocks of yellow
birds were seen busily employed in the wheat fields, much to the
alarm of the farmers, who, observing these active and beautiful
little creatures picking the heads of wheat to pieces, immagined
that they were destroying the crop, and hence resorted to various
means to kill them, and drive them away. The same warfare
has been frequently noticed elsewhere, and should at all times be
discouraged to the utmost by all who desire to cherish the most
interesting, beautiful and useful class of insect destroyers the
world contains. Birds, and especially the insectivorous birds,
ought to be encouraged in every way on this continent. Facili-
ties so unusual have been furnished by man for the increase of
certain destructive insect tribes, and no corresponding effort
made to maintain a check upon their excessive multiplication,
that we have permitted a host of enemies to obtain a firm foot-
ing in our midst, which are at all times liable to paralyze our in-
dustry in the most alarming and grievous manner.

CHAPTER V.

The Wlieat Stem Fly, and other Depredators.

Wheat stem fly, 168.— Origin of its name, 169.— Probably not identified on this con-
tinent, 168.— Description of the wheat stem fly, 169.— The American Meromyza,
170.— The Obese Siphonella, 171. — Habits of the insect. 172. — The common
chlorops, 173.— The feathered horned chlorops. 174.— The shank-banded oscinis,
175. — The yellow-hipped oscinis, 176.— The thick-legged oscinis, 177.— The de-
ceiving wheat fly, 178. — The similar wheat fly, 179. — The wheat mow fly, 180.
The wheat thrips— the three-banded thrips, 181.— Gay lord's grain worm, 182.
—The wire worm, 183.— The larva, 184.— The pupa, 185.— The perfect insect.
187.— Remedial measures— ammonia, 188.— Sir Joseph Bank's remedy, 189.—
The Hon. A. B. Dickenson's remedy, 189(a).

168. The Wheat-Stem Fly, (Chlorops Pumilionis.) — Perhaps
this species has not yet heen identified on this continent, never-
theless it is quite certain that numerous insects belonging to the
same genus infest the wheat crops in America. As every kind
of information bearing upon the subject of wheat culture and
wheat depredators is of the utmost value in Canada, the follow-
ing notices of insect depredators, which may be met with in our
wheat fields, are subjoined. Their habits and distribution have
not been much studied on this continent ; it is to be hoped, how-
ever, now that attention is so painfully drawn to the insects
preying upon wheat, that observers will be found in Canada zea-
lous to record the approach, and describe the habits, life and
history of the unknown insect pests on this most valuable cereal.

169. The wheat-stem fly derives its name from the colour of
its eyes, and the effect it produces upon the plants it attacks.
It destroys the central shoots, and thus occasions the dwarfing of
the many lateral ones which are pushed out during the decline
of the main stem. These side shoots are not only short in
height, but carry a small head irregularly filled with grains. The

104 PRIZE ESSAY :

colour of tlie fly is black ;(i) the under side of the head and two
narrow longitudinal lines in the thorax yellow ; under side of the
body pale yellow, with two black spots on the mesosternum ;
halteres or poisers white ; the legs ash grey, and black at the
tips ; maggot small and white ; pupa yellow, smooth and shining,
and rather more than one-twelfth of an inch in length.

170. The American Meromyza, (Meromyza Americana(2) —
Fitch.) — Length about one-fifth of an inch from tip to tip of its
wings ; colour yellowish white, with a black spot on the top of
its head, continued backward towards the neck ; thorax with
three black stripes ; abdomen with three broad blackish stripes ;
wings semi-transparent ; eyes bright green ; found in the latter
part of June.

171. The 06e*e<S'/J9Ao?«eZ^«,(SiphonellaObesa — Fitch.) — About
the size of the preceding insect ; body short and thick ; — colour
black ; under side of the body yellow, with a tinge of green un-
der the abdomen ; legs tawny yellow, with their tips black ; head
yellowish white ; antennse tawny yellow, their tips black ; an
egg shaped spot on the crown, two dark stripes on each side of
the breast, and the anterior pair of feet black.

172. The larvae of these insects burrow in the stalk, render-
ing them dwarfish, and often causing the heads to perish ;
small, slender, pale green and watery white shining maggots.

173. The Comtnon Chlorops, (Chlorops Vulgaris. — Fitch.) —
Length about one-fifth of an inch from tip to tip of its wings ;
colour, pale, tawny yellow, with a round black spot on the top
of its head ; tips of antennse and feelers black ; two black bris-
tles at the end of the middle shanks, and one at the end of the
forward ones, with rows of black bristles upon the thorax ; on

(1) Duncan, quoted by Stephens.

(2) For notices of theso insects, see Dr. Fitch's Report on the Insects of New-
York, 1858.

THE WHEAT-STEM FLY, ETC. 105

the top of the head two pairs of bristles incline forward, and two
backward.

174. The Feather-horned Chlorops, (Chlorops antennalis. —
Fitch.)

175. The Shank-handed Oscinis, (Oscinis tibialis. — Fitch.)

176. The Yellow-hipped Oscinis (Oscinis coxendix. — Fitch.)

1 77 . The Thick-legged Oscinis (Oscinis ciassifemoris. — Fitch. )
Several of the above species have been met with on wheat

in the State of New York ; too little is known of them, however,
to make further remarks upon them necessary.

The Deceiving Wheat Fly (Hymelyia deceptiva. — Fitch.)

178. Very common in the latter part of June in Eastern New
York. A quarter of an inch in length from tip to tip of its
wings. Colour ash gray, legs, antennae and feelers black. A
row of brown black spots form an intercepted stripe do\ATi the
middle of its abdomen. A tawny yellow spot upon the front of
the thorax, passing into a black stripe upon the top of the head.

179. The Similar Wheat Fly (Hymelyia similis. — Fitch.)
The Wheat Mow Fly (Agromyra tritici. — Fitch.)

180. Showing its larvae in the form of myriads of pale mag-
gots crawling from the mow of wheat soon after it is placed in
the barn ; the kernels of the grain shrivelled and dwarfish. The
flies are like the common house fly, very much reduced in size.
Colour black, with a pale reddish yellow band upon the front,
above the base of the antennae, the mouth margined with dull
yellow. The legs brownish-black. The wings notched on their
outer margin near the base.

The Wheat Thrips (Thrips tritici.— Fitch.)

The Three-banded Thrips (Coleothrips trifascicata. — Fitch.)

181. Found upon the heads and stalks of wheat in June and
July, exhausting the juices of the kernels and rendering them
dwarfish and shrivelled, exceedingly minute, long and narrow.

106 PRIZE ESSAY :

six-legged insects, of a bright yellow or of a shining black colour ;
very active. First noticed by Dr. Fitch from specimens sent
from Wisconsin, July 9th, 1855, where it was causing some alarm
in the neighbourhood of Geneva. Seen near Geneva in count-
less numbers. Found in the blossoms of wheat and clover. The
thrips cerealium is a most destructive insect, and is said to have
destroyed, in 1805, one-third of the wheat crop in Piedmont.
According to Mr. Kirby it is by far the most numerous of any
insect upon the wheat in England ; he does not think he ever
examined an ear of wheat without meeting with it.

Gaylord's Grain Worm — (uudescribed.)

182. Common in Western New York, Pennsylvania, Maine,
Connecticut, &c., and in parts of Canada (Northumberland Co.)
A small caterpillar, orange coloured, and longer and darker than
the maggot of the wheat midge ; feet distinct, and twelve in
number. They are found half an inch long, and when disturbed
they let themselves down by a thread from the ear. They feed
on the grain in all stages of its growth. The perfect insect is
unknown. In some agricultural publications this insect is de-
scribed as Gaylord's Wheat Caterpillar. (See Canadian Agri-
culturist, page 81, 1856.)

The Wire Worm (Elater lineatus.)^^)

183. The wire worm is a name frequently given by farmers to
the larvae of numerous species of beetles belonging to the genus
elater. Upwards of sixty different species of this destructive
insect are known in Britain, and the same numbers in Massa-
chusetts,^^^ and it is probable that they are equally numerous in
this country. These larvae feed upon the roots and the under-

(1) Called also Agriotes Uneatus ; Agriotes, Ac, and Cataphcezus lineatus ; Cata-
jihaegus. &c.

(2) Harris.

THE WHEAT-STEM FLY, ETC. 107

ground stem of wheat, Indian corn, the grasses and most varieties
of cultivated vegetables. They continue in the larvae state for
several years, and where they prevail are excessively injurious to
growing crops.

184. Wire worms have a long, slender and very tough cylin-
drical body, composed of twelve segments, with six feet attached
to the three segments next the head. The length of the larva
of Elater lineatus is about an inch, colour yellow, head more
inclined to brown, skin tough and rigid, legs conical, body
smooth, with a few scattered hairs.

185. The pupa is whitish, with two black spots over the eyes,
it is about a quarter of an inch in length. At the extremity
of the abdomen are two short spines, terminating the tenth ring
of which it consists.

186. The perfect insect or beetle is one of those popularly
called " snapping bugs ;" colour brown, legs dark yellow, length
of body a third of an inch.

187. Sometimes the wire worm is found in such destructive
abundance that it cuts off most crops as fast as they appear two
or three inches above the surface. Under such circumstances,
starving them out perhaps is the only remedy ; a field kept per-
fectly free from vegetation can afford them no nourishment, and
they must either perish or forsake the field in search of food.
Crops of white mustard seed are particularly obnoxious to this
insect and have frequently succeeded in eradicating them. It is
questionable, however, whether the remedy in this country would
not prove as terrible as the disease 5 every one knows what a
noxious weed the mustard becomes where land is not kept clean.

188. Liquid ammonia has been tried with most favourable
results for the destruction of this insect. Also, steeping wheat
seed in wine and then drying it with sulphur has been strongly
recommended, but although the sulphur may and does prevent

108 PRIZE ESSAY :

the \nre worm from destroying the young root, yet it can hare
no effect in protecting the stem which is so frequently cut off.
Ammonia, even in a state of great dikition, kills the worm,
which hrine fails to do. Under all circumstances, the most cer-
tain method of conquering the wire worm is to starve him out
hy frequent ploughing and keeping the land perfectly clean.

189. Sir Joseph Banks suggested the burying of shces of pota-
toes and turnips strewed over the field as traps to catch the worms.
The insectiverous birds are perhaps among the greatest enemies
of these ravenous depredators. In Europe they are preyed upon
by an ichneumon parasite, also by a small black shining beetle,
{Steropus madidus) and several other insects.

189(e). The Hon. A. B. Dickenson, in an address delivered
before the Cortland County Agricultural Society, 1854, thus
facetiously describes his efforts to destroy the wire worm; "plough-
ing late in the fall will not kill all of them, but most of them.
In three years, I think they may all, or nearly all be destroyed,
and it is the only remedy I know of to destroy the most mis-
chievous and rvxinous of insects the farmer has to contend with.
I have heard it said that five bushels of salt to the acre would
destroy them, or 100 bushels of lime. I have tried both, and
have sowed 10 bushels of salt to the acre, and they only laughed
at my folly, and tried 100 bushels of lime, as recommended, and
they fattened on my bounty. I have only proved one remedy
for the rascals, and that is to break the sod, and sow it with
buckwheat ; plough late and as often as possible in the fall, and
then sow peas in the spring ; with the like ploughing next fall,
thev will not disturb any crop the next season.,*^

CHAPTER VI.

Rust — SrmU — Pepp<r Brand — Ergot.

Eust, 190.— Devastating cliaracter of this enemy to wheat, 190.— Notices of the
appearance of rust in the United States and Canada, 193, 197.— Isolated tracts
of country affected, 198 —Description of Biist, 199.— Mode of growth and
nutrition, distinction from mildew, smut, bunt, and other fungi, 199.— jNIagni-
fled drawing of rust on wheat, 199(a).— Description of the fungus, showing
spores and mycelium, or organs of reproduction and organs of nutrition,
199(a), 199(b) .—Description of fungi generally, 200.— Conditions of the growth
of fungi, 201.— Necessity for abundance of Ammonia, 201.— Description of the
cuticle and epidermis of plants, on which fungi appear, 203.— Stomata, their
functions, 201.— Cellular tis.sue. its mechanical composition, 20-l(a).— Mode in
which water passes through plants, 205.— Evaporation and exhalation, 205.—
Exhalation, 206.— Influence of liffht upon the opening of the Stomata, 208.—
Evaporation, independent of vitality: exhalation in a measure dependent upon
vitality, 210.— Under suppressed evaporation and exhalation, the juices of
plants stagnate and become fitted for the growth of fungi, 211.- Conditions
favourable to the growth of Rust, 212.— Ammonia in the atmosphere, 212.—
Nitric acid in the atmosphere, 212, 213.— Effect of tree Ammonia on vegetation
214.— Growth of fungi in foggy weather, 215.— Presence of Ammonia in fogs,
216.— Conditions for the appearance of rust fulfllled, 216.— Rust prevalent on
new land, reason of this, 217.— Remedy for Rust, 218. — Powdered charcoal as an
absorbent of Ammonia, 218, 219.— Quantity of Ammonia in the atmosphere,
220(a).— "Water absorbed by the roots of plants alone, 220(b). — ' Cure' for mil-
dew; also, ' euro' for Rust, 221. — Influence of salt — of sea air, no Rust on sea
coasts, 221. — Chemical action of salt with regard to Ammonia, 222. — ]Mode in
which salt operates in arresting Mildew and Rust, 222. — Johnson's explanation
of the action of salt erroneous, 223-— In the portions with water described it
acted as a poison, 22-2.- Mr. Theodore Perry's experiments with salt, 223(a).—
Dr. August Voelcker's experiments with salt, 223(b). — Effect of salt on wheat,
223(c).— Early sowing of prepared seed one of the best remedial measures,
221.— Connection of Rust with Ammonia exemplified, 225.— Rust not found on
unexposed parts of the wheat plant, 226. — Size of the sporules of certain fungi,
226.— Size of the sporules of Rust, 226.— Professor Henslow's opinion that
Rust is a miniature form of mildew.— Rev. Mr. Sidney's opinion, 227. — It is
probable that American Rust is not identical with the European, Rubigo, 227.
— So called Rust proof wheats, 228. — Virginia White May, Siberian wheat.
Black S -a. Piper's set wheat, protection wheat, 228.— Valuable instance of
checking the progress of Rust by Toronto Gas Lime, and rationale of its
operations ; early taking of the crop, 229(a).

Smut— Bant Ear, 230.— Remedial Measures ; commission at Rouen, 231.— Soda and
lime, 231. — Meltzer's method of steeping and preparing seed, 232. — Rationale
of washing in pure water, 232(a).

Pepper Brajid—Hnnt; stinking rust; characters, 234. — Appearance of a grain
affected , mode in which the sporules enter, 235. — M. Bauer's experiments, 235.
— Common effect of the mycelium of a fungus, 236.— Rationale of the use of
certain steeps, 237.

110 PRIZE ESSAY :

Brgot—CocksTpmr ; natare of this body no longer a mystery, 238.— Early opinion
regarding, 238 ; M. lulasne's opinion and discovery. 238(a).— Medical effects of
ergot, 240,— Localities where it appears, and dreadful results from the con-
sumption of ergoted wheaten bread in England and rye bread in France and
Germany, 241.— Ergot common in pastures when undrained; common in
certain grasses.

K,tFST — Uredo Rubigo.

1 90. Many eminent American agriculturists consider * rust '
to be the greatest enemy which the farmer has to encounter in
the cultivation of wheat on this continent. Compared with the
ravages it sometimes occasions, the depredations of the Hessian fly
and wheat midge fall into the second rank. Its attacks are so
unexpected and universal that it has been likened to a sudden
whirlwind of blight, which sweeps over thousands and tens of
thousands of square miles of country in the short space of a sin-
gle night. * Struck with rust' is an expression more common
and more to be feared than that frequent visitation in the early
spring months, which we are accustomed to hear deplored under
the term, ' nipt by the frost.' " In the Northern States general-
ly it produces more disaster to the wheat crop, than all other
diseases and all insects put together."(i>

191. It is quite needless to enumerate the different theories,
as they are termed, which have from time been advanced, to ac-
count for the appearance of rust. Every purpose will be an-
swered for the objects contemplated in this essay, if the origin
of rust be traced and described. It will be useful to enumerate
a few instances of the appearance of rust in the United States
and Canada.

192. In 1837 rust was common in many parts of the States.
Its appearance was preceded by very hot weather, followed by
rain. In many districts the wheat crops were suddenly and
totally destroyed.

193. In 1840 an extensive rust blight occurred in Northern

(I) Prize Essay, N.Y. S.A.S., John J. Thomas, 134a

RUST, SMUT, ETC. Ill

Indiana, affected with almost equal destructiveness all kinds of
wheat crops, and on all sorts of soil.

194. From 1840 to 184G, rust was common and most destruc-
tive in the States of the Union, but in 1847 little complaint was
made of its ravages.

195. In 1849 it was very destructive. Mr. A. Ruff of Xenia,
Ohio, states that rust destroys much wheat and has been con-
stantly increasing for the last 12 years.(^)

196. During the same year, and on the same authority, we
read : " The enemies of wheat in this vicinity (Racine) are the
weeA'il, mildew, and rust, the last having the present season des-
troyed one-half of the crop.

197. In 1850 rust caused almost an entire failure of the wheat
crop, in all North-western Virginia. Every year more of less
rust is found in the States and Canada. It is, indeed, everywhere
prevalent, and we are always liable to rust years. It is equally
common in the high northern as in the middle wheat growing
States. In 1855 and 1856 it occasioned considerable damage to
the wheat crop in the County of Saguenay, C.E., common in
Thorah, Canada West.(2)

198. It often happens that the crops over isolated tracts of
country are affected, generally in stripes, narrow and long.
These stripes are found to lie in valleys, or low situations ; on
new land rust is very destructive, the experience of every
Canadian farmer will serve to assure him of the tendency 'to rust '
exhibited by crops grown on virgin soil or new land in low damp
situations.

199. Rust is a fungus, a minute vegetable growth, which
throws that part of its structure serving the purposes of roots
through the tissue of the wheat plant, and lives upon the nou-

(1) P. O. Report, 1849.

(2) Rusl has occasioned ihe almost entire destruction of the wheat crop in iv>rt uf tlii*
township, during its universality. It is everywhere prevalent in America.

112

PRIZE ESSAY :

rishment which should be appropriated by the growing grain.
Before proceeding further with a description of ' rust,' it is
essential to acquire information respecting the structure, mode of
growth and reproduction of the tribe of vegetables called fungi.

INIildew is occasioned by a minute fungus called Puccinia
Graminis.

Rust is the growth of two kinds of fungi, uredo rubigo and
uredo linearis. It is probable that the rust of this country dif-
fers from the ' rust ' in England, certainly there is a great differ-
ence between the appearance of the fungus on growing wheat
stems here, and the delineations given in European works on
this subject.

Smut, is uredo segetum.

Bunt, is uredo fcetida ; 'stinking rust.'

199(a). Many other fungi prey upon other vegetables. Mr.
Berkeley thought that the potato disease was due to a parasitical
fungus found in the haulm, the botrytis infestans. Martins also
ascribed the potato malady to a fungus, differing from the one
last named.

-~ ^^ (3)

SECTION A\D rOETION OF A STALK OP WHEAT AFFECTED WITH RUST.

(1) (1) (1) Masses of the Ru'iiKO- (i) Sto'.uiita. or brpathini? pores. (:i) Cellular
tissue. (1) Caticle. (5) Epidermis.

113

/VAfVv^V\V

Y\

PIG. I.— BOTRTTIS ISFESTAKS.

(1) Head, or spores of tlie fungus. (-2) Mychiim, cr spawn. (3) Cuticle of leaf
of potatoe. (4) Cellular tissue.

The figure shows the manner in which the mycehum or sj.awn

of the funiius ramifies through the cellular tissue of the leaf.

'^■''^« 4^

(1) fEEDO TJUBioo {Common liuaf.)

200. The minute vegetable organisms called /?/«^«, are cellular
-lants having neither leaves, stems nor roots. Their organs of
T^ntrition consist of a series of filaments called the Mycelium
(fig. 1, 2), {mykes, a fungus) or spaw-n, vvhich spread like a net-

114

PRIZE essay;

FI&. II.— FUNGUS (SMUT) FOUND OK EOTTEN POTATOES, VEET SIMILAR TO RUST.

(a) Young head, or spore. (J) More matured state, (c) Shedding or scattering
the seeds or sporules.

work through the substances on which the fungi grow. They
represent the roots of the fungus. From this network proceed
bodies resembling globes, (fig. 1) circular disks, mitres, cups and
coralline branches, which bear the organs of reproduction.(i) The

(2) pucciNiA QUi-Mivs (Common Mildew.)

(I) Ency. Brit., 8th Edi.

RUST, SMUT, ETC. 115

mycelium is developed either under ground, or in the interior
of the substance on which the plant grows. The filaments of
the mycelium are composed of elongated colourless cells. Fungi
are propagated by seeds or sjjorules enclosed in sporule cases or
spores (b, c, fig. II.)

20 1 . Fungi most commonly grow upon vegetable or animal
substances in a state of decomposition. They require a very
large supply of carbonic acid and ammonia for their nutrition.
The proportion of nitrogenous matter contained in their tissues
is much greater than in those of any other vegetable ; so that
their substance, if capable of being digested, is almost as nutri-
tious as flesh. (1)

202-3. All cultivated plants are covered with a membrane,
termed the cuticle, and composed of cellular tissue (fig. I, p.
113.) The cells of the cuticle are filled with a colourless fluid,
and. their walls are thickened on the outside with a deposit which
is usually of a waxy nature and nearly impervious to moisture.
In plants growing in temperate climates, the cuticle is composed
of a single row of thin-sided cells, in tropical plants several layers
of thin-sided cells occur, evidently with a view to resist, by their
non-conducting power, the great heat of a tropical sun. Exter-
nally to the cuticle, there is an exceedingly delicate transparent
membrane called the epidermis.

204. In particular parts of the cuticle of nearly all plants,
minute openings exist which are termed stomata ; these may be
opened or closed by an alteration in their form. They are not
found upon the roots of plants, on the ribs of the leaves, or in
plants growing in darkness, but they exist in general on all leafy
expansions. They are most abundant on the under surface of
leaves, except when these float on water, and then they are found

(1) Carpenter, Prin. of Comp, Physiology.

116 PRIZE essay:

on the upper side alone ; but they exist equ.ally on both surfaces
of erect leaves, as in the lily tribe and grasses. (^)

204 (ff). Cellular tissue(^) exists in all plants, and composes a
large portion of turnips, carrots and other fleshy roots. It con-
stitutes the pith and outer bark of trees, and the central part of
rushes. The little cells of which this tissue is composed vary in
size. They are found from xoVo*^^ ^^ Tw^l^ P'^^^'^ of an inch in
diameter. The general average diameter is from ^V^^ ^° TffTJ^^
of a line, and that of the cellular spores of fungi 7-5-g^th of a line
or ^Jjj^th of an inch in diameter.

205. Vapour of water passes from the surface of plants in two
ways, either by evaporation or exhalation. Evaporation from
the surface of plants is dependent upon the moisture in their
tissues, the temperature of the air and the dew point. When
air is saturated with moisture, or in other words, when the dew
point is the same as the temperature of the air, evaporation from
the surface of plants ceases. It is entirely independent of vitality.
Exhalation is a function of the plant ; is altogether dependent
upon vitality, and bears a strict relation to the number of stomata
on the plant.

206. Exhalation is greater in summer than in autumn, and is
much less active during the winter than at other periods of the
year. A laurel parts with as much fluid in tAVO days in summer,
as during two months in winter. ('^J Hales found that a common
sunflower transpired on an average 20 oz. a day. The weight of
the plant was 3tbs., its height 3j feet, and the surface of its
leaves 5,816 square inches. On one warm day it exhaled as
much as 30 oz. of fluid ; on a warm dry night 3 oz. ; when the
dew was sensible, though slight, it neither lost nor gained, and
by heavy rain or dew it gained 2 or 3 oz.(^)

(1) Carpenter. (2) Called also Pa>*e»c/i;vw«. (3) Guettard, quoted by Carpenter
(4) Quoted by Carpenter, Prin. Corap. Physiolojiy.

RUST, SMUT, ETC, 117

207. These and numerous other experiments estahhsh the
fact that exhalation from the stomata is greatly dependent upon
the moistv\re of the atmosphere, and that an atmosphere satura-
ted with moisture totally arrests this function in plants. Light
exercises a most important influence upon exhalation, for it has
been established that if plants in which the process is being vi-
gorously performed be carried into a darkened room, the exhala-
tion is immediately stopped, and that the absorption by the roots
is checked almost as completely as if the plant had been stripped
of its learesJi'

208. " It would not seem improbable, then, that the effect of
light is confined to the opening of the stomata, which it is be-
lieved to effect ; and that the large quantity of fluid discharged
from them may be due to simple evaporation from the extensive
surface of succulent and delicate tissue which is thus brought
into relation with the air, and to the constant supply of fluid
from within, by which it is maintained in a moist condition." (-)

209. As is shown in the foregoing paragraphs, evaporation
may take place from all parts of the surface of a plant in small
quantity when air is not saturated with moisture ; and in the
absence or presence of light, it is, in a word, independent of vi-
tality. Exhalation, on the contrary, is dependent not only upon
the dryness of the atmosphere, but upon the opening of the
stomata of the plant under the influence of light, it is therefore
so far subordinate to vitality.

210. The stomata opening under the influence of light, the
rise of the sap(') in plants becomes due to evaporation and the
pressure of the atmosphere. " By the evaporation of water at
the surface of plants, a vacuum arises within them, in conse-

(l) Senebier, quoted by Carpenter. (2) Carpenter, Prin. Comp. Physiology.
(3) The rise of the sap in spring is probably greatly increased by a species of
germination liberating gas in the plant.

118 PRIZE essay:

quence of which water and matters soluble in it are driven in-
wards, and raised from without with facility ; and this external
pressure, along with capillary attraction, is the chief cause of
the motion and distribution of plant juices." (^)

211. When the plant has taken up a maximum of moisture,
and evaporation is suppressed by a low temperature, or by con-
tinued wet weather, the supply of food, the nutrition of the plant
ceases ; the juices stagnate, and are altered ; they now pass into
a state in which they become a fertile soil for microscopic
plants. ('^) When rain falls after hot weather, and is followed by
a great heat without wind, so that every part of the plant is sur-
rounded by an atmosphere saturated with moisture, the cooling
due, to further evaporation, ceases, and the plants are destroyed
by fire-blast or scorching.(3)

212. I now proceed to consider the conditions favorable to the
growth of rust, whose spores and sporules are at all times floating
in the air. Having already discussed this subject at some length
before the Horticultural and Agricultural Central Club, at To-
ronto, in April, 1856, I venture to append the views of the rapid
appearance of rust then advanced, with some additional proofs
and remedial suggestions.

212. Ammonia, we know, exists in the atmosphere, probably
to the extent of one part in ten million parts on the average. At
times the quantity of ammonia present is much greater than the
above ratio, at other periods less. Rain water contains on an
average nearly one part of ammonia to the million, and of nitric
acid about five parts to the million. ^^^ Dew always contains am-
monia, and mists have prevailed so rich in this substance that
the water had an alkaline reaction. Barral analyzed the water

(1) Leibig on Hales' Experiments—" Motion of the juices in the animal body."

(2) Leibig on the motion of the juices of the animal body. (3) Ibid.
(4) Experiments of Dr. Gilbert and Mr. Lawes.

RXJST, SMUT, ETC. 119

collected In tlie rain guage of the observatory at Paris. He
found that in one year 10.74 lbs. of ammonia fell with the rain,
and 10.7 lbs. of nitric acid. In July he found the amount of
the ammonia to be the greatest ; in September, the amount of
nitric acid to be the greatest. The ammonia was least in March,
and increased gradually to July. In August it diminished sud-
denly, and continued to diminish . until October, attaining its
second maximum in February.

213. These observations, although very interesting, are not
satisfactory, because they were made in the neighborhood of a
great city. Hence we find that Boussingault discovered much
less ammonia in the air far away from towns — a gallon of rain
water containing only one twenty-fifth of a grain of ammonia.
As a general fact, however, the water collected during fogs was
extraordinarily rich in ammonia, containing on an average one-
third of a grain to the gallon — but an instance has been known
— before referred to — of a gallon of water from a fog containing
not less than four grains of ammonia. The constant preserca of
this substance in the atmosphere is not only now fully established,
but its influence upon vegetable growth in this gaseous form is
of the highest interest, and possibly, of the highest importance.
214. The experiments of M, Ville upon the effects of ammonia
in air upon vegetation, show how rapidly and remarkably its in-
fluence is felt. If ammonia be artificially introduced into air in
the same proportional average as carbonic acid is found to be
constantly present, namely, about one part in 2500 parts of air,
its influence soon shows itself upon the leaves, which continually
acquire a deeper and deeper tint. The presence of such am-
moniacal vapours not only stimulates vegetation, but changes the
growth of the plant, and causes the developement and enlarge-
ment of particular organs. In prosecuting a series of experi-
ments on the phenomena of vegetation, with a view to ascertain

120 PRIZE essay:

whether nitrogen was directly absorhecl from the atmosphere and
assimilated, M. Boussingault observed the growth of minute
green cryptogamia on the outside of the flower-pots, which had
been exposed to the air, but he failed to detect any vegetable
growth on those from which fresh air had been carefully excluded.

215. The sudden growth of varieties of fungi during misty
weather has often been noticed, and their appearance may be ac-
celerated by the introduction of a small quantity of vapour of
ammonia into any confined space where they are observed. I
am not aware that any extensive experiments have been made
upon the growth of fungi in an atmosphere rich in ammonia,
such as certain fogs. I have, however, remarked with surprise
their absence in an atmosphere from which ammoniacal vapours
were probably abstracted by powdered charcoal, without, how-
ever, drawing any conclusions from the observation until attracted
by the curious discovery of M. Boussingault, that fogs are emi-
nently rich in ammonia.

21 G. The presence of a large quantity of this important plant
food in certain fogs is not difficult to account for. Not only
does the gradually increasing quantity of aqueous vapour in the
atinosjihere before the positive appearance of mist in any locality,
collect and condense rare and widely diffused ammoniacal vapours,
but the exhalations from the soil produced by decomposing ve-
getable matter, are arrested and accumulate. The period of the
year when fogs rich in ammonia may be expected depends natu-
rally upon the frequency of the fall of rain — upon the moisture
of the atmosphere, and upon the winds. In Canada it appears
reasonable to suppose that we may expect to find fogs rich in
ammonia during the hot months of July and August, when the
rain fall is not so great as in September. During these months
mists frequently hang over the fields, particularly inlow situations.
The exhalation of vapour of water from the leaves of jjlants be-

RUST, SMUT, ETC. 121

ing tlien checked, and their juices partially stagnating in an at-
mosphere often rich in ammoniacal vapours, all the conditions
for the appearance of the fungus called " Rust" on the stems
and leaves of the cereals appear to be fulfilled.

217- It is commonly remarked that rust is most prevalent on
new land ; this is perhaps explained by the large amount of ve-
getable matter thrown into a state of decomposition by excess of
air and the consequent production of ammonia. There is no
doubt that much of the ammonia thus generated would combine
with vegetable acids, and be fixed by clay, &c. ; but some por-
tion could not fail to combine with carbonic acid and escape into
air in the form of the volatile carbonate, as is observed to a
greater degree on manure heaps even where gypsum or other
solid fixers of ammonia are employed to avoid it. "We must re-
gard new land as a storehouse of ammonia and other plant food,
which become liable to volatilize when liberated by too free an
exposure to air without proper precautions.

218. If the supposition be correct that "Rust" is mainly oc-
casioned by the concurrence of mists or fogs in July and August,
rich in ammonia, stimulating the growth of the sporules in the
stagnated juices of the plants ; and that the active agent in in-
ducing the sudden appearance of that destructive parasite is
really ammoniacal vapours, we have a remedy at hand which
promises, when properly and carefully applied, if not entirely to
check, at least so far to arrest the growth of the parasite as to
claim a general trial, especially as its effects would probably prove
equally availing in arresting mildew. What we require is an
available absorbent of ammonia and its votatile compounds, not
an absorbent which will destroy this valuable plant food, but one
which possesses the property of inducing it to assume another
form, perhaps equally available as a fertilizer, although of much
slower action. Recent observations show that powdered charcoal

122 PRIZE ESSAY :

answers these requirements. Charcoal not only absorbs ammonia
to an immense extent, but it also oxidizes it to nitric acid, and
thus renders it temporarily inert, but not unavailable to future
fertilization.

219. Powdered charcoal is distributed with the utmost ease
over large areas. Being an extremely light substance and easily
reduced to a fine state of division, the least breath of air is suffi-
cient to carry it for hundreds of yards. Any one who tries the
experiment of gently shaking a muslin bag, containing coarsely
powdered charcoal, in a gentle wind, will find that the operation
of sowing, as we may technically express it, a ten acre field,
would certainly not cost one-tenth part of the labour of sowing
the same field with plaster ; and as that operation is not unfre-
quent in this couxitry, a practical guide is at once furnished of
the amovmt of labour the operation involves. Powdered char-
coal thus sown is very uniformly distributed by the least motion
of air, and its effects are marvellous. In a stable, for example,
strongly smelling of ammonia from fermenting urine, an ounce
of powdered charcoal, shaken by means of a muslin bag or any
fine network, rapidly and uniformly distributes itself, and in-
stantly absorbs the ammoniacal vapours. A curious instance of
the action of this deodorizer occurred at Balaclava during the
heat of summer, when the stench was almost intolerable in that
painfully celebrated harbour. A ship load of charcoal arrived,
packed in bags, and the men who were engaged in transferring
the cargo to the shore were covered \\dth the dust, as was every
object in the neighbourhood — the stench which before prevailed
suddenly and completely disappeared.

220. Nothing is more simple than the manufacture of char-
coal — a few billets of wood are to be piled like cordwood, then
well covered with sods, with the exception of two orifices, one
to admit a little fire, and the other to allow the smoke to escape.

RUST, SMtJT, ETC. 123

until the heap has well taken, and then to be firmly closed for
the purpose of allowmg slow combustion to go on in the absence
of air. When cool the charcoal may be crushed in a stout can-
vass bag by a lever, not by blows, and when sifted, furnishes the
required material for sowing.

220(a). If we assume with Fresenius that the quantity of
ammonia in the atmosphere amounts to less than one ten-mil-
lionth ; the amount it would contain would exceed 50,000,000
tons, while that of the carbonic acid in the atmosphere is
3,300,000,000,000 tons, the weight of the air itself being
.5,050,000,000,000,000 tons or five thousand and fifty billions.

220(b). Water is absorbed by the roots of plants alone ; and
the same water may repeatedly pass through the same crops, for
the amount crops exhale during their growing season greatly ex-
ceeds the rainfall, hence they must derive much water from dew
which is absorbed by the soil, and taken up by the roots, to be
again exhaled and again deposited in the form of dew. The
amount of dew may be equal to one-half of rainfall during the
summer months.

221. Whatever "specific" will cure mildew, will also arrest
rust.(i) Both are fungi, very nearly allied to one another, so
much so, indeed, that it has been supposed by very eminent bo-
tanists that rust is merely a state in the development of mildew,
and both species are produced under similar climatic conditions.
Cuthbert Johnson says, " Salt, if not a complete preventive, is
an effectual cure of the mildew." Mr. Chattertou, in the annals
of agriculture, tells us that " on the sea side the wheat is little
damaged by the mildew, yet within three miles inland the crops
are as much affected as those still further from the sea." " This
fact can be supported by the experience of most farmers whose
fields skirt our native shores." Not only does^the soil in such

(1) Mildew and rust are often found together.

124 PRIZE essay:

situations contain an abundance of common salt, but every sea
breeze bathes the growing crops near tlie coast in moist air,
holding in solution a quantity of common salt.

222. What will be the chemical action of common salt upon
the ammonia of fogs and dews ? The form in which the ammo-
nia is present is that of a carbonate ; its exact constitution is not
of the slightest consequence. As a carbonate the chemical
changes which would occur are as follow^s :

Common salt or chloride of sodium, acting upon a carbonate
of ammonia, would produce bi-carbonate of soda, chloride of
ammonium, and free ammonia. The free ammonia would com-
bine at once with free carbonic acid, and be again decomposed,
and another portion fixed by the common salt present in the
moist air, and so on. The real effect of the salt is, then, to fix
the ammonia of fog, mist or dew, and in that way it is most pro-
bable that this substance operates so beneficially in arresting-
mildew and rust.

223. Johnson, in his " Essay on Salt," explains the action of
this agent in the following way : " The certainty and celerity of
its operation I account for thus : the mildew, it is now well as-
certained, is a parasitical plant of the fungus tribe, the principal
constituent of which tribe is water ; when salt, therefore, is ap-
plied to them, the aqueous particles are immediately absorbed,
and their vitality destroyed." The objection to this Aiew is,
that in the experiments made to test the effect of salt on mil-
dew, it was used in a state of solution, in the proportion of one
pound of salt to one gallon of water, so that the salt was fully
saturated with water, and could not possibly have acted on the
fungi in the manner described above. It might have acted as a
poison, but its action arose, no doubt, from the fixation of the
ammonia, so stimulating to mildew and rust, as desci'ibed in the
preceeding paragraph.

RUST, SMUT, ETC. 125

223(a). Mr. Theodore Perry tells us in the " Prairie Farmer,"
that he sowed one-half of a ten acre field with one-and-a-half
hushels of salt, just after seeding it with spring wheat ; the re-
sult was that the salted portion was ready for the sickle five days
earlier than the unsalted part, and not a particle of rust or smut
could he found ; aud the increase of crop he estimated at five
hushels to the acre. The effects of salt, it must be remembered,
are always rather variable and uncertain.

223(b). A number of experiments were undertaken by Dr.
Aug. Voelcker, of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester,
with a view of studying the effects of salt on vegetation in
general, and a notice of the results he arrived at is to be found
in the Report of the British Association for 1850. The plants
selected for experiments were cabbages, beans, onions, lentils
and radishes. The lentils watered with a salt solution contain-
ing twenty-four grains of salt per pint of water, were greatly im-
proved. Grasses were affected by salt more readily than any
other of the plants experimented on. Solutions containing
twenty-foiir grains of salt, decidedly benefitted radishes, lentils,
onions and cabbages. Many of the plants tasted like strong
brine.

223(c). The effect of salt on wheat is said to increase the
weight of the grain, and diminish that of the straw.

224. Early sowing, with properly prepared seed, to escape the
time when those climatal conditions occur favourable to rust, is,
perhaps, one of the best remedies which can be recommended.
If to this we add the selection of flinty-stemmed varieties, whose
stomata on the stalk will have in great part closed before the
"time for rust," little damage may be expected in ordinary
years. The use of charcoal and common salt, as liefore described,
mil serve very matei'ially to lessen the dangers arising from the
appearance of this most destructive parasite. Common salt, or

126 PRIZE ESSAY :

gypsum, finely powdered, may be sown broadcast ; under all cir-
cumstances they will act in a favorable manner either as a partial
preventive of mildew and rust, or as a manure, by fixing the
ammonia of the atmosphere.

225. The connection of rust with ammonia is exemplified in
many different ways. We often find, for instance, that richly
manured fields are liable to rust ; and where isolated patches of
manure or droppings of cattle occur in a field of wheat, the
grain growing on those patches will be rusted generally, but not
always. Charcoal beds have long been considered "rust proof"
in the United States. Liquid manure, when applied to crops,
has proved very beneficial in enabling them to escape rust, while
neighboring crops, manured in the ordinary way with solid farm
yard manure, were much affected. In one case the ammonia
would be all absorbed, in the other case part would return to the
atmosphere. Damp situations, fogs, and the season of the year
when the decomposition of vegetable matter is most active, and
therefore the atmosphere often charged with ammonia, are all
conducive to the propagation and development of this fungus.

22G. Rust does not appear to be found on those parts of the
wheat plant which are not exposed to air and light, such as the
roots, and those portions of the stem enclosed in the sheath of
the leaves. This arises from the simple circumstance that there
exist no stomata in those parts which are not exposed to light,
hence a species of negative evidence that a large proportion of
the sporules of rust enter the stomata directly from the air, and
vegetate there. Fries states that the sporules of certain fungi
are so inconceivably minute that they rise like thin smoke into
the air by evaporation, and are dispersed in innumerable ways. W
He calculated that in one individual fungus the number of seeds
exceeded ten millions ; and Mr. John J. Thomas, of Wayne

(1) Quoted by the author of " Blights of the Wheat."

RUST, SMUT, ETC. 127

County, New York, has estimated the number of plants of rust
on a single wheat stalk to be twenty millions.

227. In a paper published by Professor Heuslow, in the
"Agricultural Journal" for 1841, on the "Specific Identity of
the Fungi producing Rust and Mildew," he endeavored to estab-
lish the position that rust, or uredo rubigo, is an immature or
imperfect form of another fungus, the puccinia graminis, or mil-
dew. The author of "Blights of the Wheat" (the Eev. Edwin
Sidney) says : "All that the author can, as yet, venture to as-
sert is, that some puccinia have clearly the appearance of uredo
before the septum or division of the spores into chambers is
fully developed." (See Figs. 1 and 2, page 113(a). The figure
by Corda confirms the opinion that Mr. Sidney's observation is
safe and accurate, as far as regards the British or European spe-
cies. I am rather inclined to suppose that the American rust is
distinct from the American species. I have often seen forms
very similar to those shown in figure 3, page 114(a).

228. The following varieties of wheat have been recommended
as in part "rust proof:"

1. VirginiaWhite May Wheat — resembles the white flint; ripens
six or eight days earlier than the white flint, and has not been
injured by rust.(i) It is said to have deteriorated by culture in
New York, in other words, it has become acclimated, and lost
some of the properties for which it was distinguished. Fresh
importations of seed are required.

2. Pea wheat or Siberian v^heat "is not subject to rust," (2)
(spring wheat.)

3. Black Sea wheat ; (spring wheat ;) well known in Canada,
and although much deteriorated, still supposed to possess certain
immunity from rust.

(1) Emmons' Nat. His. of New York,— Agrriculture.

(2) Vide Emmons as before.

128 PRIZE ESSAY :

4. Fife wheat — (see paragraph 161, No. 4.)

5. Pipers thick set loheat is said to be the shortest and stiffest
strawed wheat in cultivation. (New edi. of Ency. Brit., 1853.)
It is a yellow grained, rather coarse variety, and has been intro-
duced into Scotland under the name of protection wheat.

229. A valuable instance of good husbandry in checking the
progress of rust, is related by Mr. Curtis McFarland, under date,
Toronto, 1849, and will be found in the Canadian Agriculturist
for March, 1849. No doubt the application of lime greatly im-
proved the quality of the straw, and forwarded the ripening of
the crop. The surface draining alluded to is also an artifice ad-
mirably adapted, as every good farmer knows, to increase the
returns, improve the sample, hasten the maturity, and in many
other ways benefit the crop.

"In the spring of 184.5, being my first year in Canada, I went
on a rented farm, in the Township of Whitchurch, on which
there were three acres of fall wheat, which when harvest came
I found to be very much injured by the rust. The wheat grew
on dry ground, and had been early sown, and otherwise well
laboured. It was fallow the first time broken up, and had re-
ceived a dressing of farm-yard manure.

To endeavour to prevent this disease in my wheat crop the
ensuing season, and to do so -ndth as little outlay of money as
possible, I took occasion every time I went to Toronto with the
waggon, to bring back a load of lime from the gas works ; this I
got at about half the price I would have paid for it at the lime
kilns. I kept it dry until I was going to use it, and applied
about forty bushels to the acre on the fallow, harrowing it in
with the seed.

Wherever I applied the lime, there was no rust in harvest, but
where it was omitted there was very considerable of it.

The lime cost 6d. per bushel, thus the expense was only £\

RXJST, SMUT, ETC. 129

per acre, the benefit derived was, that where the lime was used,
I had thirty bushels of good sound wheat per acre, and where it
was not used, I had only eighteen of poor shrunk grain. The
account stood thus : —

LIMED ACRE.

To 30 bushels of wheat, at 4s £6

To 40 bushels of lime, at Gd 1

365

UNLIMED ACRE.

By 18 bushels, at 2s. 3d £2 6

Balance in favour of limed acre 2 19 6

365

This I repeated the following season, and with a similar result,
and I am satisfied that any person adopting the like course will
find a similar result.

There is nothing from which the Canadian farmers suffer so
much as from the rust in their wheat crops, and if by the simple
and cheap application of a few loads of lime to every acre of
fallow, and at the same time taking care that a free passage be
given to carry off the surface water, they can in a great measure
remedy this evil ; I am certain there is no one will regret having
tried it, and when they have once tried it, will continue to do so
on every possible occasion."

229(a). Early takinff of the crop. — It is now agreed on all
hands that grain should be reaped before it becomes what is called
dead ripe. In the case of wheat and oats, when the grains have
ceased to yield a milky fluid on being pressed under the thumb
nail, and when the ears and a few inches of the stem immediate-
ly underneath them have become yellow, the sooner they are
reaped the better. (Ency. Bri., new Ed., 1853.)

130 prize essay :

Smut — Bunt Ear.

(Uredo Segetum.)

230. Affecting the flower of the Avheat plant, and reducing the
ears to black masses of sooty powder. The spores of this fungus
are extremely minute. M. Bauer says, that the one hundred and
sixty thousandth part of a square inch contained forty-nine of
them, therefore, it would require seven millions eight hundred
and forty thousand to cover a square inch of surface. How in-
conceivably great the luimber required to fill one cubic inch !
and yet every field of wheat contains thousands of grains of
smutty wheat. The extreme smallness of the sporules leads to
the supposition that they enter the plant through the spongioles
of the root, and rise with the ascending sap.

Remedial Measures.

23 1 . In 1 842 a commission was appointed at Rouen, in France,
to determine the best process for the preparation of wheat for
the prevention of smut. Their labours extended over several
years, and resulted in the recommendation of the use of sulphate
of soda, and lime, in preference to sulphate of copper, (blue
Titriol,) arsenic, and other poisonous preparations. They also
decided that wheat steeped in a solution of sulphate of soda,
and dried with lime, yields the soundest and most productive
grain. (See paragraph 11 7, for proportions.)

232. Metzger, in Germany, after a trial of 22 years, found
only one single injured ear in all his crops, by mixing the seed with
soap-suds and slacked lime. The wheat was prepared three days
before it was sown, or until it began to germinate. He says,
"' If sown earlier after mixing with the lime it will be liable
to smut."(^) The object aimed at in preparing seed wheat against

(1) See a paper on the selection, change, preparation and sowing of wheat seed,
by D. J. Browne, in P.O.R., for 1855.

RUST, SMUT, ETC. 131

smut, is to wash off or kill the sporules of the fungus which ad-
here to the seed. Soaking in brine and chamber ley is a com-
mon artifice in Canada. The last named substance is very valu-
able as a quickener of germination when the moistened seed is
dried by means of sulphate of lime, or gypsum, or charcoal.

232(a). The specific gra\-ity of the spores of smut is greater
than that of water, hence ivell washing in running water will re-
move a very large proportion of the spores ; this artifice is par-
ticularly to be recommended in preparing wheat for seed as a
forerunner of other modes of preparation. The rationale of the
use of lime and other alkalies is said to be based upon the for-
mation of a soap with the supposed oily matter which invests
the smut sporules, which then admits of their being washed off
by water.

Uredo Fcetida.
Bunt — Stinking Rust — Pepper Brand.

234. A fungus with a very peculiar and disgusting odour, fill-
ing the grains in which it has made a lodgment, and replacing
the stalk by a black mass of spores with their mycelium attach-
ed. Under a very powerful microscope, when magnified at least
one thousand times, the spores have been observed to burst and
emit a cloud of inconceivably minute sporules or pepper brand
seed. A grain of wheat may contain several million spores, but
the numbers of sporules contained in these intelligible niunbers
fail to express.

235. The appearance of a grain affected by this fungus is
similar, as far as external form and colour is concerned, to that
of the sound grains until they approach maturity. The diseased
grain is then larger, move plvmip, and of a dark green colour,
and emits when broken a foetid smell. From the experiments of
M. Bauer, it is very probable that the sporules of this fungus

132

PRIZE ESSAY :

enter the roots and remain within the system of the plant until
such a change occurs in the process of its development that the
ovum of the future seed affords the appropriate nursery for its
growth. M. Bauer found the uredo foetida in the cavity of the
ovum before the ear emerged from its sheath, and the young
fungi in partial occupation. In this experiment the seed had
been purposely inoculated.

236. The peculiar dark green colour of the infected grains is
a common effect of the presence of the mycelium of a fungus.
It stimulates the formation of the green colouring matter of
plants called the chlorophyle. Hence the rich tint of the so
called fairy rings, so often seen in pastures and on lawns, which
are produced by fungi. Dark green patches are occasionally
seen on leaves, and if the opposite under surface be examined, it
will probably be seen that a fungus has established itself there. (i)

237. The investing coat of the spores is of an oily and sticky
nature, Avhereby they adhere to the substances with which they
may happen to come in contact. Hence in preparing seed the
use of alkalies or substances which will make soluble compounds
with the oily matter, or insoluble compounds destitute of adhesive
properties may be effectually employed to disinfect the grain
used for seed. The mode of steeping wheat noticed in paragraphs
232, 232(a), 231, will serve the necessary purpose. It is very
probable that a large proportion of the so-called smut of this
continent is nothing more than pepper-bread, and both are cer-
tainly common in our wheat fields.

Ergota (Sclerotium chwiis.J — Ergot (Cocksjmr.)

238. The exact nature of this curious substance is no longer
open to discussion. The observations of Dutrochet, Leveille,
and Quekett seemed to show that ergot is a disease of the grain

(1) Berkeley, on the Potato disease.

RUST, SMIJT, ETC. 133

caused by a parasitical fungus. The so-called mature ergot pro-
jects beyond the chafF-scales. Its colour is violet-black. The
number of infected grains in each ear may be from one to the
whole. This remarkable substance has long been a fertile subject
for discussion. Its singular mode of growth, the appearance of
infested grains among a host of sound ones, and the painful
maladies to which the incautious use of ergoted bread has given
rise over extensive areas, have all tended to clothe this dis-
tinct vegetable production with a painful and serious interest.
It is popularly supposed to infest only rye ; this is a dangerous
error, and doubtless numerous untoward results have arisen from
this belief.

238 (a). The enigmatical nature of ergot has lately been cleared
up by M. Tulasne, who has shown that the body of the ergot,
which is externally of a blackish colour and internally white, and
which has been described as Sclerotium clavns is only the ve"-e-
tative rudiment of a claviformed fungus, which is not developed
until it has fallen to the earth. The fungus is very closely allied
to the Spheerioe growing upon caterpillars, and is described by
M. Tulasne under the name of Claviceps pnr2mrea.W

240. The medicinal effects of ergot are well known, and when
taken into the animal system to a considerable extent, as in the
consumption of ergoted bread or of grasses by cattle, the results
are most lamentable. It originates terrible gangrenous diseases
in man, mortification of the limbs, and ultimately death.

241. On undrained lands cattle have often been made seriously
ill by the ergot present in the natural grasses growing there ;
good drainage effectually removes this poisonous disease. Many
instances are recorded in England of local epidemic diseases of a
most shocking description, which have been caused by the con-
sumption of ergoted xolieaten bread. Ergot is common in

(1.) Dr. Braun— on the diseases of plants— Journal of Microscopical Science, 1854

134- PRIZE ESSAY :

America, and a considerable quantity is exported to Europe for
medicinal purposes besides that required for home consumption,
which, it is stated, forms by no means an insignificant item of the
aimual production for medicinal and other purposes of this curi-
ous and dangerous substance. Ergot is common in maize. In
South America mules fed on this diseased grain are said to lose
their hoofs and hair. In France the consumption of ergoted
rye-bread has often filled villages and hamlets with the most
painful records of the diseases it is capable of engendering.

241(«). Dr. R. G. Latham found ergot on eighteen species
of grasses, and over large areas in 1842. It is commonest on
the Loliiim perenne, rarest on the Hordeum murinmn. The
Pheums and Fescues are very subject to it, so is the Dactylis
glome rat a ; in other words, some of the best pasture grasses.
The Cynosurus cristatus is remarkably free from it.(i)

(1) Rep. of the British Association, 1845.

CHAPTER VII.

Insects affecting stored grain of Wheat,

The Weevil.— Description of the Insect, 242— Female lays her eggs in Stored
Wheat, 243— Presence of insect, how detected, 243— Habits of the Weevil,
244.— Mode of destroying, 244.— TOe Wolfov Little G-rain 3Ioth, 245.— Habits
of the Insect, 246, 247.— Illustration of the Wolf, Moth and Caterpillar, 247.—
Ilemedial measures, 248.— The Angumois Moth, 249.— Moth and caterpillar, 250.
Summer and autumn brood, 252.— Ilemedial measures, 253.

The Weevil (Calanclra granaria.)

242. A snout-beetle, about one-eightb of an incb in length,
with a slender body of a dull reddish brown colour, furrowed
wing cases and long punctured thorax. A single pair of these
insects may produce six thousand descendants in a year. They
are destructive to stored grain in both the perfect and larva state.
The female lays her eggs in wheat in the granary. The young
maggots burrow into the grain and consume its contents, leaving
only the husk. Their transformations are perfected within the
husks they have chambered out in the larva state, and so secretly
are their operations conducted, that it is impossible to detect thei
operations by simplelnspection of a heap of wheat.

243. The presence of these insects may be detected by the
weight of the grains. On throwing a handful into a bucket of
water the diseased grains will float. After the female has, by
means of her rostrum or beak, deposited an egg in the grain, she
covers it up with a sort of glue of the same colour as the husk,
hence the difficulty of detecting the presence of this depreda-
tor in the granary during the time when it is in the larva state.

244. On the approach of cold weather the weevils retire from
the heaps of wheat, and seek shelter in crevices and cracks of

136 PRIZE ESSAY

WHEAT WEEVIL.— Crt?a>K/rrt

Grandaria.
{Uatural Size.) ^^^^^ WBEYiL.-^dfagniJied.)

the floor and walls. They remain torpid for a while, and after
having paired soon die. They avoid the light, hence one reason
why constant turning of the wheat and sifting is advantageously
employed to drive them away. They lie in general four or five
inches below the surface of the heap, and here the majority
pair. Kiln drying appears to be the only certain destruction to
this pest. Frequent turning and airing of the heaps, whitewash-
ing the walls, and keeping the granaries clean, with abundant
ventilation, are artifices strongly recommended for the purpose
of diminishing the numbers of this pest. It is not likely, how-
ever, that farmers in Canada will suffer much from its depreda-
tion for some years to come. Where large quantities of wheat,
and particularly of foreign wheat, are allowed to accumulate in
store ; there, no doubt, the ravages of this insect will be felt.

245. The Wolf, or Little Grain Moth, (Tinea Granella.)—
Mr. Curtis says that this moth is completely estaTbhshed in Bri-
tain, as well as in every part of Europe. The late Dr. Harris
says that from various statements, deficient, however, in exact-
ness, he was led to believe that this insect, or an insect exactly
like it in its habits, prevails in all parts of the country. Since
its existence is quite established in America, and its known habits
are such that it may at any time appear in destructive numbers
in Canada, a notice here of its general appearance and peculiar-
ities, will not be out of place. From April till August (i) the
moth is found in granaries or magazines, resting by day on the

(1) Curtis.

THE "WEEVIL, WOLF, ETC. 137

walls and beams, and flying about only at night, unless dis-
turbed.

246. The female lays one or two eggs on each grain of wheat,
until she has deposited thirty or more. They require the assist-
ance of a magnifying glass in order that they may be distin-
guished. The small white worms penetrate grain, and close up
the aperture with their roundish white excrement, which is held
together by a fine web. When a single grain is not sufficient for
its nourishment, the larva unites a second grain to the first by the
same web, and thus ultimately adds together a great number.

247. In August and September they arrive at maturity, when
they leave their wheat heaps, and seek for a place in which to
undergo their metamorphosis. They form cocoons by working
bits of wood into their web, in any chink of the floor,
walls or roof. These cocoons look like grains of wheat dusted
over. They assume a chysalis state in March, April and May,
according to the season. In two or three weeks they take the
form of the perfect insect or moth.

Nat. Size.

THE yrOLV.— Magnified.

CATEBPILIAB.

CATEEPILLAB.— .

248. The following remedies are suggested by Mr. Curtis :
Floor of granary scoured with soft soap, and well brushed with a
stiff broom ; roof and beams whitewashed. The moths may be
destroyed in spring by burning lights or lamps in the granaries

138 PRIZE essay:

where tliey abound. All cracks in the floor or walls should be
stopped with plaster of Paris, and apertures for ventilation se-
cured by fine gauze. Burning sulphur will kill the moths.
Grain should be cut early to anticipate the appearance of the
moth. (See Patent Office Report for 1849-50, for further in-
formation on this subject.)

249. The Angoumois Moth (Anacampsis CerealeUa.) — In the
Southern States of the American Union the larva of this moth
is said to feed upon the grain in the open fields. In the North-
ern States it is found in granaries, and of course we may expect
to find it in Canada.

2.50. The Angoumois moth (5) is a four- winged insect, about
three-eighths of an inch long when its wings are shut (a.)

(a) (6)

AXGOUMOIS M0TH.(1)

Its upper wings are narrow, and of a light brown colour, with
the lustre of satin. The lower wings and the rest of the body
are ash-coloured. The female lays from sixty to ninety eggs on
the ears of wheat and other grains. Sometimes the eggs are laid
in the field, sometimes in the granary. They breed twice in the
year, there being an early summer and an autumnal brood. Each
worm, like caterpillar, selects a single grain into which it bur-
rows, and on the flower of which it subsists.

251. The caterpillar is about a fifth of an inch long ; colour
white, with a brownish head ; it has six small-jointed legs, and

(I) From the Patent Oflxce Report for 1854

THE WEEVIL, WOLF, ETC. 139

ten extremely small wart-like prop legs. 0) Its chrysalis state is
assumed in the grain, after having curiously provided a means of
escape by gnawing a small hole in the husk of the grain for its
emergence in the form of a moth.

CATKEPlLLAE.-2Va<. Size. Magnified.

252. The summer brood of caterpillars come to maturity in
about three weeks, and assume the form of the moth in autumn,
to propagate their kind among the stored grain. The autumn
brood feed upon the contents of the granary, and remain in their
pupa condition until the following summer, when they emerge
and seek the young growing crops to lay their eggs.

253. Exposure to a temperature of 170° Fah,, for twelve
hours in a kiln, will destroy this insect in any one of its states ;
but, at the same time, it renders the grain useless as seed by de-
stroying the power of germination. Mr. D. J. Browne says, in
the Patent Office Report for 1854, that a very small quantity of
chloroform dropped into close vessels containing these insects,
destroys them in a few minutes — an artifice, however, of little
practical value.

(1) See Harris' Treatise on Insects-

FINIS.

LOTELL AND GIBSON, PEINTEE3, TOEONTO.